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THE 
RE-ORGANISATION   OF   RURAL    EDUCATION 

IN   THE   CAPE   PROVINCE 
OF   THE   UNION  OF   SOUTH   AFRICA 


BY 

JOHANNES  Rossouw   MALAN 


SUBMITTED 

IN  PARTIAL  FULFILMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS 

FOR  THE  DEGREE  OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY 

IN  THE  FACULTY  OF  PHILOSOPHY 

COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY. 


Copyright. 


Published  by 

TEACHERS  COLLEGE,  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY, 

NEW  YORK  CITY. 

1922. 


PREFACE. 

The  importance  of  maintaining  an  intelligent,  cultured, 
healthy,  and  successful  people  on  the  farms  can  hardly  be 
over-emphasised.  The  welfare  of  the  state  depends  largely 
upon  the  welfare  of  the  farmer.  Moreover: 

"  Ultimately  the  food  supply  will  govern  with  an  iron  hand 
the  extent  of  the  world's  population.  ....  The  whole  industrial 
and  social  order  under  modern  conditions  is  rooted  in  an  adequate 
food  supply.  The  men  who  till  the  soil  then  are  responsible 
for  large  human  destinies.  They  bear  the  world  on  their 
shoulders."  1.. 

This  is  the  day  of  the  new  farmer.  The  modern  farmer 
has  to  be  a  practical  scientist  and  a  skilled  manager, 
business  man,  mechanic  and  labourer,  all  in  one.  In 
addition -he  must  remain  a  perpetual  student  if  he  wants 
to  keep  up-to-date.  From  this  it  is  evident  that  the 
successful  farmer  must  be  a  well  educated  man. 

Economically  and  socially  rural  people  are  at  a  dis- 
advantage. The  country  has  not  shared  largely  in  the 
advances  made  by  towns  and  cities.  Rural  communities 
are  lagging  behind  in  the  march  of  progress.  To  correct 
this  backwardness  is  one  task  of  the  rural  school  system. 
Education  is  probably  the  best  agency  we  have  for  social 
progress.  Of  course  the  rural  school  system  alone  cannot 
hope  to  solve  the  many  economic  and  social  problems  of 
the  country,  but  it  may  be  called  upon  to  contribute  a 
considerable  share  in  the  solution  of  many  of  them. 

"Rural  welfare  is  not  only  one  of  the  most  important  of 
our  social  problems,  from  a  national  point  of  view,  but  it 
also  presents  some  of  the  most  difficult  problems  of  edu- 
cation. This  study  has  been  undertaken  with  a  hope  of 


1.  Butterfield  K.L.    The  Country  Church  and  the  Rural  Problem. 
P.  2. 


532130 


(ii) 

offering  possible  solutions  to  some  of  these  educational 
problems.  The  purpose  has  been  to  trace  the  development 
of  rural  education  in  the  Cape  Province,  to  show  the 
present  status  of  rural  education,  to  reveal  its  needs  and 
problems,  and  then  after  pointing  out  what  is  being 
done  in  other  Countries,  to  make  recommendations  for 
improvement. 

Rural  education  is  defined  as  the  education  of  the 
rural  population  as  carried  on  more  especially  in  the 
open  country  outside  of  cities,  towns,  and  incorporated 
villages. 

With  so  large  a  theme  the  scope  of  the  study  has  ob- 
viously had  to  be  limited. .  Many  topics  have  been 
touched  but  briefly.  The  intent  has  been  to  consider 
more  fully  those  phases  indicating  definite  lines  along 
which  rural  education  may  be  improved  in  the  Cape 
Province.  The  education  of  the  coloured  people  and  of 
the  natives  living  in  the  rural  areas,  as  well  as  descrip- 
tions of  the  social  and  economic  status  of  the  rural 
population  have  been  omitted  altogether.  For  these 
the  reader  is  referred  respectively  to  "  The  Education 
of  the  South  African  Native  "  by  C.  T.  Loram,  and  to 
"Education  in  South  Africa"  by  M.  Boehmke.  The 
fact  that  this  study  has  had  to  be  addressed  to  both  an 
American  University  Faculty  and  to  educational  readers 
and  leaders  in  South  Africa  accounts  for  the  insertion  of 
many  details  arid  explanations  otherwise  unnecessary. 

Probably  no  method  of  studying  questions  of  organisa- 
tion and  administration  is  so  valuable  as  the  comparative, 
and  probably  to  no  other  country  can  the  South  African 
student  of  rural  education  turn  with  better  profit  than 
to  the  United  States. 

The  writer  gratefully  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  to 
Hie  Union  Department  of  Education  for  being  awarded 
a  Union  of  South  Africa  Government  Overseas  Scholar- 
ship; to  Dr.  W.  J.  Viljoen,  Superintendent-General  of 
Education  of  the  Cape  Province,  who  first  suggested  and 
considerably  aided  this  study;  to  Dr.  G.  G.  Cillie, 


(iii) 

Principal  of  the  Training  College,  Stellenbosch,  for  pro- 
fessional stimulation ;  to  Mr.  D.  D.  Malan  and  Miss  Louisa 
Malan  for  valuable  assistance  in  connection  with  the 
questionnaires;  and  to  every  rural  teacher  and  all  others 
wh,o  have  so  kindly  contributed  many  of  the  much-needed 
details  embodied  herein. 

The  writer  owes  much  to  the  many  members  of  the 
faculty  of  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University;  but 
his  special  thanks  are  due  to  Dr.  Fannie  W.  Dunn,  Dr.' 
E.  S.  Evenden  and  Dr.  I.  L.  Kandel  for  constructive 
criticisms  and  helpful  guidance.  He  is  most  of  all 
under  great  obligation  to  Professor  Mabel  Carney,  in 
whose  department  and  under  whose  careful  supervision 
this  study  was  made.  Her  hearty  enthusiasm  for  the 
cause  of  rural  education  has  been  a  great  inspiration. 

J.  B.  M. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

I.  HISTORICAL  BACKGROUND. 

PAGE 

Rural  Educational  Needs       . .          . .         . .          . .         . .  1 

Administration   . .          * 5 

Inspection  and  Supervision 

Compulsory  Education             . .          . .          . .          . .          . .  9 

The  Schools        11 

The  Teachers 12 

'Courses  of  Study           16 

Problems   . .                     20 

II.  THE  PRESENT  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 

A.  Administrative  Organisation           . .          . .          . .          . .  20 

1.  Central  Educational  Authority 22 

2.  Local  Management  by  School  Boards  and  Committees    23 

B.  Classification  of  Schools 25 

1.  Farm  Schools            27 

2.  Primary  Schools 27 

3.  Secondary  Schools 28 

4.  High  Schools 28 

5.  Training  Schools  and  Training  Colleges         . .          . .  29 

6.  Part-time  Schools '29 

7.  Trade    Schools,    Industrial    Schools    and    Industrial 

Departments           . .         . .          . .         . .         . .         . .  29 

8.  Special  Schools         30 

C.  Support  of  the  System           30 

D.  Inspection  and  iS.upervision  . .         . .         . .         . .         . .  32 

E.  School  Grounds,  Buildings  and  Equipment       . .          . .  33 

F.  The  Teaching  Force . .  34 

1.  The  Training  of  Teachers 34 

2.  Certification  of  Teachers . .  35 

3.  Appointment,     Tenure,     Classification,     Salary,     and 

Pension         . .         . .         . .         . .         . .,         . .         . .  38 

4.  Training  of  Teachers  in  Service  . .         . .         . .         •  •  45 

G.  School  Attendance       . .         . .         . .         . .         . .         . .  46 

H.  Medium  of  Instruction  and  Instruction  in  the  Official 

Language 47 

Summary  . .         . .                    48 


(vi) 

III.  THE  PRESENT  STATUS,  OF  RURAL  EDUCATION. 

PAGE 

A.  Data  in  connection  with  the  Rural  School         . .         . .  49 

1.  The  Children 52 

2.  The  Teachers            56 

3.  Boarding  Place          64 

4.  Course  of  Study 67 

5.  The  School 71 

6.  Inspection 73 

7.  The  Community         81 

8.  In  Conclusion             . .          . .         . .         . .          . .         . .  85 

Summary 87 

B.  The  Work  of  Other  Agencies          89 

IV.  COMPARATIVE   STUDIES  OR  RURAL  EDUCATION 

IN  DIFFERENT  COUNTRIES. 

1.  Administration           92 

2.  Inspection  and  Supervision           . .         . .         . .         . .  93 

3.  Rural  School  Teachers 97 

4.  Rural-Teacher  Preparation          . .          . .          . .          . .  99 

5.  Courses  of  Study . .         . .  103 

6.  Buildings,  Grounds  and  Equipment 112 

7.  The  One-Teacher  School 116 

8.  Consolidation  and  Transportation         118 

!.).  Continuation   Schools,   Part-time  Education   and   Ex- 
tension Teaching ;  122 

V.  RECOMMENDATIONS  AND  SUGGESTED  RECON- 

STRUCTION. 

1.  Administration          . .         . .  125 

2.  Inspection  and  Supervision           . .         . .         . .         . .  125 

3.  Rural  School  Teachers 129 

4.  Rural  Teacher  Preparation           . .         . .         . .         . .  130 

5.  Courses  of  Study 132 

6.  Methods  of  Teaching  and  Testing           143 

7.  Buildings,  Grounds  and  Equipment 146 

S^The  One-Teacher  School 148 

9.  Consolidation  and  Transportation           . .         . .         . .  150 

10.  Rural  High  Schools            152 

11.  Continuation   Schools,   Part-time  Education   and  Ex- 

tension Teaching     . .         . .         . .         . .         . ,         . .  154 

12.  The  Rural  Community         155 

Summary  of  Recommendations         . .         . .         . .         . .  1 59 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  162 


I.     HISTORICAL  BACKGROUND. 

Rural  Educational  Needs. — While  the  progress  of 
rural  education  was  intimately  bound  up  with  that  of 
education  in  general  the  unusual  handicaps  of  the  rural 
school  situation  demanded  special  attention.  All  the 
early  investigators  reported  the  neglect  of  education  in 
the  rural  areas.  In  1743  Van  Imhoff,  Governor-General 
of  India,  who  called  at  the  Cape  and  made  a  journey  up- 
country,  pointed  out  the  unsatisfactory  state  of  educa- 
tion he  had  found.  A  regimental  chaplain  was  much 
struck  with  the  condition  of  affairs,  and  addressed  a 
long  memoir  to  the  Governor  and  Council  in  1788  on  the 
subject.  Commissioner-General  de  Mist  in  1803  soon 
noted  the  general  neglect  of  education,  and  after  he  had 
travelled  through  all  the  districts  he  became  convinced 
of  the  urgent  need  for  the  creation  of  a  regular  school 
system.  The  result  was  his  famous  school  ordinance.*1 
In  the  course  of  his  first  circuit,  in  1811,  the  Chief 
Justice  reported  on  the  sad  state  of  education  in  the 
country  districts.  In  1839  Dr.  Innes  made  a  tour  of 
insi>ection  1h rough  the  several  districts  and  found  a  most 
deplorable  state  of  affairs. 

In  1879  the  Government  in  accordance  with  a  resolu- 
tion of  Parliament,  appointed  a  Commission  to  inquire 
into  the  state  of  education  in  the  Colony,  a  matter  upon 
which  a  good  deal  of  dissatisfaction  was  known  to  exist. 
The  Commission  <  of  which  the  Chief  Justice,  Sir  J.  H.  de 
Villiers,  was  Chairman)  was  specially  directed  to  investi- 
gate the  educational  condition  of  the  rural  or  farming 
population.  They  reported  in  1880  that  great  advance 
had  been  made  in  <  dueation  since  1865  but  that  education 
was  still  very  backward  especially  in  remote  rural 
districts. 

a  Promulgated  by  Governor  Janssens  in  "  De  Kaapsche 
Courant "  between  Oth  March  and  18th  May,  1805. 

Report  of  the  Education  Commission  1863.       Appendix. 


Donald  Koss,  Inspector-General  of  Colleges  and 
Schools,  found  in  1883  that  the  greatest  educational 
deficiency  was  among  the  scattered  farming  population 
and  the  poorer  while  population  in  towns  and  country. 
Both  classes  he  maintained  had  a  strong  claim  upon  the 
Government.  The  formers  were  showing  an  increased 
interest  in  education  and 


"  in  endeavouring  to  meet  this  growing  interest  wisely,  the 
peculiar  difficulties  of  the  problem  should  be  kept  well  to  the 
front;  such  as  the  enormous  extent  of  the  (pastoral  districts, 
the  great  size  of  the  upland  farms,  the  thinly  scattered  popula- 
tion, the  defective  ideal  of  elementary  education  presented  for 
generations  to  the  rural  districts,  and  the  mixture  of  intense 
conservatism  and  pronounced  republicanism  which  the  farming 
population  have  inherited.  The  farmers  are  the  backbone  of 
this  country;  they  are  the  owners  of  its  soil,  with  them  lies 
its  development  and  its  fertility,  and  the  wealth  and  prosperity 
of  the  country  will  therefore  depend  upon  the  general  intelligence 
of  the  farming  community.  Over  and  above  that  the  country, 
with  all  its  resources  requires  consummate  skill  in  the  develop- 
ment of  its  wealth.  On  that  ground  alone  I  would  advocate  for 
the  farmers  as  thorough  a  course  of  training  as  can  be  had  in 
the  towns,  and  the  system  which  treats  the  farmers  to  third 
class  schools,  which  do  not  and  cannot  generally  impart  sound 
instruction,  is  in  the  highest  .degree  objectionable.  Third  class 
schools  with  their  inferior  teachers  and  low  standards  virtually 
shut  out  the  most  important  section  of  the  community  from  the 
blessings  of  real  culture.  It  is  most  difficult  to  think  out  a 
scheme  that  would  replace  these  without  increased  expenditure. 
For  under  any  scheme  the  farmers,  in  virtue  of  their  residence, 
are  at  a  disadvantage,  and  there  shall  always  be  the  danger 
that  they  may  get  an  inferior  article  at  a  higher  price  than 
their  fortunate  brethren  who  live  in  towns.  Any  scheme  that 
commends  itself  to  the  good  sense  of  the  country  must  therefore 
be  efficient,  cheap,  simple,  and  practical ;  and  to  decrease  the 
cost  and  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  instruction,  the  schools 
should  be  brought  to  the  children  rather  than  that  the  children 
should  be  brought  to  the  school,  in  other  words,  home,  though 
ever  so  homely,  is  preferable  to  a  distant  boarding  school.  The 
family  and  the  school  can  never  be  too  intimately  associated ; 
school  life,  if  healthy,  only  continues  the  healthy  influences  of 
family  discipline,  and  the  best  factor  in  the  social  life  of  any 
country  is  the  influence  of  the  family  organisation.  However 
good  and  however  necessary  boarding  departments  may  be,  it 
never  should  be  forgotten  that  they  interfere  with  the  highest 
of  all  responsibilities  and  the  noblest  of  all  duties." 


Mr.  Ross  therefore  recommended:  (1)  a  system  of 
itinerant  teaching,  and  (2),  as  an  alternative  in  some 
districts,  improved  district  boarding  schools  in  well 
selected,  well  watered  centres,  with  ample  garden  ground 
attached  and  ample  facilities  for  rural  training.  These 
centra]  schools  should  as  the  first  condition  give  a  sound 
primary  education. 

(3)  "A  limited  number  of  farmers  would  always  prefer  to  en- 
gage their  own  tutors  or  governesses,  or  to  send  their  children  to 
town.  But,  notwithstanding  that  wherever  15  or  more  children 
could  be  got  together  a  good  school  should  be  started  and  main- 
tained. Very  few  of  the  third  class  schools  are  at  present  able  to 
give  that  education  to  which  the  farming  community  are  entitled 
and  I  would  respectfully  suggest  that  these  rural  schools  should  be 
raised  all  roundr  which  could  be  done  without  much  additional 
expense.  Instead,  therefore,  of  taking  the  third-class  schools 
as  the  unit  of  the  system,  I  would  aim  at  abolishing  third-class 
schools  under  incompetent  or  uncertificated  teachers  altogether, 
and  converting  all  into  good  primary  schools,  and  looking  upon 
these  as  the  basis  and  the  main  strength  of  the  whole  system. 

In  looking  at  the  country  as  a  whole,  however,  with  equal 
claims  and  equal  rights,  I  would  propose  no  sudden  change,  no 
rash  innovation,  no  interference  with  any  good  work  or  with 
any  institution  that  can  make  its  claim  good  to  recognition  and 
permanence."  b 

In  defending  himself  against  the  criticisms  raised  by 
Mr.  Ross  and  the  press  Dr.  Dale  pointed  out  that  grants 
of  £50  per  annum  to  six  itinerant  teachers  among  the 
scattered  farm-steads  had  been  discontinued,  because 
few  qualified  persons  could  be  induced  to  undertake  the 
duties  of  this  vagabond  life,  and  no  check  could  be 
kept  over  the  movements  of  the  itinerant  in  the  remote 
parts  of  Namaqualand,  Clanwilliam.  and  Calvinia.  Such 
a  man  naturally  spent  his  time  not  where  he  was  most 
wanted,  but  where  his  quarters  were  most  comfortable.0 


b  Ross  D.  Preliminary  Report  on  the  State  of  Education  in  the 
Colony  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  1883.  p.  22,  23. 

c  Great  Britain  Education  Department.  Special  Reports.  Vol. 
5.  London  1901  p.  65. 


Dr.  Dale  further  reported  that :  "  The  duties  of  the  Superin- 
tendent-General of  Education  have  never  been  narrowed  to  the 
supervision  of  government  schools.  Private  teachers  have  freely 
used  the  service  of  myself  and  officers  for  advice  and  help  in 
procuring  assistants,  in  arranging  their  courses  of  study,  and 
selecting  text-books  and  suitable  school  furniture  and  appliances. 
Clergy,  farmers  and  others  continually  resort  to  this 
office  for  tutors  and  governesses,  and  in  this  way  I  consider 
the  department  has  indirectly  done  much  to  the  advancement  of 
education  among  the  agricultural  and  pastoral  population."  d 

The  Education  Commission  of  1891  reported  that  only 
a  little  more  than  one-third  of  the  European  children 
of  school  age  in  the  Colony  were  in  attendance  at 
school. 

"  The  Commissioners  found  that  much  remained  to  be  done 
before  it  could  be  said  that  the  children  of  the  agricultural 
population  frequent  the  schools  in  sufficient  numbers.  They 
thought  that  the  establishment  of  School  Boards  having  a  lien 
iipon  local  rates  will  have  considerable  influence  in  promoting 
school  attendance  in  the  rural  districts.  They  urged  that  a 
capitation  grant  should  be  paid  even  for  one  child  (instead  of 
for  a  minimum  of  five)  regularly  taught  by  a  qualified  teacher 
on  a  lonely  farm.  They  urged  certain  increases  in  salary  in 
order  to  induce  a  better  class  of  teachers  to  take  up  work  in 
connection  with  district  boarding  schools  among  the  agricultural 
population.  They  further  recommended  (1)  augmentation  of 
grants  in  aid  of  salaries  of  teachers  of  schools  started  by  a 
School  Board  in  rural  areas,  where  the  permanent  needs  of  a 
poorer  class  of  inhabitants  have  to  be  provided  for;  (2)  the 
supply  of  movable  structures  for  school  purposes  and  for  teachers' 
houses;  (3)  grants  to  village  technical  schools  undertaken  by 
School  Boards,  either  as  adjuncts  to  day  schools  or  as  separate 
institutions;  and  (4)  free  railway  tickets  for  children  of  poorer 
families  in  rural  areas  attending  day  schools  at  a  distance  from 
their  homes."  e 

The  Boer  War,  1899-1902,  greatly  affected  the  rural 
schools. 

"  In  1906  the  ominous  term  '  Poor  White '  seems  to  appear  for 
the  first  time  as  the  subject  of  definite  enquiry  by  a  Select  Com- 
mittee of  the  House  of  Assembly,  and  ever  since  the  question 
has  commanded  some  considerable,  if  not  always  well  informed  or 
statesmanlike  attention."  f 

11  Great  Britain  Education  Department.     Op.  cit.  p.  68. 
elbid  p.  84. 

f  Macmilian  W.M.  The  South  African  Agrarian  Problem  and  its 
Historical  Development,   p.   S. 


The  characteristic  "  Poor  White "  trouble  is  largely 
of  rural  origin.  As  reasons  for  this  have  been  assigned 
the  Boer  War,  the  droughts,  the  rinderpest,  the  increase 
in  the  number  of  the  landless  (bijwoners),  the  educa- 
tional neglect,  and  the  economic  struggle  in  competition 
with  better  educated  immigrants,  and  the  cheaper 
coloured  labourers.8 

During  the  Parliamentary  session  of  1908  a  grant  of 
£4,500  was  voted  for  the  promotion  of  education  in 
specially  necessitous  districts.  It  was  estimated  in 
19.17  that  there  were  in  the  rural  areas-  of  the  Cape 
Province  about  10.000  children  without  schooling.11  The 
Indigent  Children  Ordinance  was  passed  in  1917  to  make 
provision  for  the  education  of  those  for  whom  even  the 
Private  Farm  School  was  not  available.  There  were  in 
1921  about  140  indigent  boarding  houses  accommodating 
about  5,500  boarders.1  The  census  of  the  European  or 
white  races  of  the  Union  of  South  Africa  in  1918  has 
shown  the  rural  illiteracy  to  be  greater  than  the  urban. 
About  3  per  cent,  of  the  rural  population  above  7  years 
of  age  were  reported  to  be  neither  able  to  read  or  write 
as  against  2  per  cent,  of  the  urban  population.  The 
rural  illiteracy  in  the  Van  Rhynsdorp  district  was  more 
than  6  per  cent.3 

Administration. — In  1714  by  the  school  ordinance  of 
Governor  de  Chavonnes  a  Commission  consisting  of  three 
scholarchs,  namely,  the  secunde  (next  in  authority  to 
tiie  Governor),  the  minister  in  Cape  Town,  and  the 
military  captain,  was  appointed  under  the  authority  of  the 
Governor  and  Council.  They  had  to  visit  the  schools 
and  to  inspect  them. 

The  de  Mist  Ordinance  of  1805  made  provision  for  a 
Commission  of  seven  Scholarchs  to  consist  of  (1)  a 

g  Malan  D.  F.  De  Achteruitgang  van  ons  Yolk.     Nationale  Pers 

Kaapstad.  1917. 
h  Malan  D,  F,  Op.  cit.  p.  11. 

1  Letter  from  the  Department  of  Education,  4th  August,  1921. 
J  Census  of  the  European  or  White  Races  of  the  Union  of  S.A. 

1918.     Part  III.  Education. 


6 

member  of  the  Council  of  Policy,  (2)  the  president  of 
the  Orphan  Chamber,  (3)  two  ministers  of  the  Dutch 
Reformed  Church  and  one  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  (4) 
a  member  of  the  Town  Council  and,  finally,  a  treasurer 
nominated  by  the  Governor.  There  was  further  the 
important  provision  that  the  landdrosts  (magistrates) 
and  ministers  of  the  country  district  should  be  honorary 
members  of  the  Commission,  in  order  that  the  wants  of 
places  outside  Cape  Town  should  not  be  forgotten. 

In  1812  the  Governor,  Sir  John  Cradock,  slightly 
altered  the  School  Commission  from  that  of  de  Mist  by 
the  addition  of  the  Lieutenant  Governor  and  the  English 
Colonial  Chaplain.k 

In  1813  the  School  Commission  was  merged  in  the 
Bible  and  School  Commission.  The  Governor  was  made 
patron,  and  the  Colonial  Secretary,  the  military  chap- 
lain and  the  minister  of  Simonstown  wrere  to  be  ordinary 
members.1 

The  appointments  on  the  Commission  were  soon  after- 
wards made  arbitrarily.  The  Commission  seemed  to 
have  considered  itself  from  1812  not  as  called  upon 
to  carry  out  the  law,  but  to  administer  certain  funds  and 
to  have  the  supervision  of  education  in  the  Colony. 

In  1837  Colonel  Bell,  the  Secretary  of  the  Government, 
in  a  memorandum  on  the  state  of  education  pointed  out 
very  plainly  the  impotence  of  the  Bible  and  School  Com- 
mission, "  whose  superintendence  is  next  to  nothing,  for 
they  cannot  visit  and  examine  the  schools,  and  they  are 
unable  even  to  supply  vacant  schools  with  teachers." 
He  suggested  "  the  appointment  of  a  sound,  clear-headed 
man,  either  not  belonging  to  the  ministry,  or  so  untinc- 
tured  with  prejudices  in  favour  of  this  or  that  form 
of  the  Christian  Protestant  faith  as  to  constitute  him 
an  impartial  Director-General  of  Public  Schools  in  this 
Colony."  m 

This  memorandum  was  submitted  for  comment  in  1838 
to  the  eminent  astronomer,  Sir  John  Herschel,  then 

k  Great  Britain  Education   Department,      Op.  cit.  p.   13. 
1  Ibid  p.  13. 
m  Ibid  p.  20. 


.residing  at  the  Cape.  He  suggested  that  a  well  organised 
and  well  supervised  system  of  schools  should  be  instituted 
and  maintained.,  and  that  a  single  supreme  authority 
should  be  appointed,  who  was  to  receive  monthly  reports 
of  the  attendance,  progress  and  conduct  of  each  individual 
pupil.  This  head  was  to  be  in  direct  communication 
with  the  Government.  These  recommendations  were 
transmitted  to  Lord  Glenelg,  the  Secretary  for  the 
Colonies.  On  the  receipt  of  the  approval  of  the  English 
Government  Dr.  James  Rose  Innes,  was  appointed  the 
first  Superintendent-General  of  Education  of  the  Cape 
Colony  in  1839. 

The  Superintendent-General  of  Education  was  to  visit 
every  school  at  least  once  a  year,  to  examine  the  ordinary 
routine  of  daily  instruction,  the  arrangement  of  subjects, 
classification  of  pupils,  etc.,  and  to  institute  a  strict 
inquiry  into  the  state  and  progress  of  the  schools  gener- 
ally. He  was  to  receive  monthly  returns  from  each 
school.  From  the  quarterly  returns  of  examinations, 
which  were  held  in  the  presence  of  the  local  school  com- 
missions, he  was  to  issue  certificates  to  the  candidates 
who  had  in  his  estimation  successfully  completed  their 
course  of  study.  He  was  to  be  a  guide  and  adviser  to  his 
teachers  and  furnish  the  Government  with  full  reports 
of  the  state  of  each  school  and  the  efficiency  of  the 
system.11 

The  Bible  and  School  Commission  was  formally  relieved 
of  its  superintendence  of  government  schools  in  1841. 

The  duties  of  local  school  commissions  were  confined 
at  this  time  to  inspecting  the  schools  at  such  times  as 
they  saw  fit,  and  reporting  to  the  Government  any  matter 
that  might  be  necessary. 

The  Act  of  1865  made  provision  for  the  local  manage- 
"ment  of  schools.  Local  school  rules  and  regulations  were 
to  be  framed  and  fees  fixed  by  the  managers  and  approved 
bv  the  Government. 


n  Great  Britain  Education  Department.     Op.  cit.  p.  24. 


8 

41  It  the  people  of  a  neighbourhood  were  sufficiently  alive  to 
the  advantages  of  education  for  their  children,  and  if  a  few' 
leaders  were  prepared  to  come  forward  and  bear  the  initiatory 
trouble  and  expense  of  starting  a  school,  government  aid  might 
fairly  be  reckoned  on,  but  if  these  favourable  conditions  were 
wanting,  the  act  provided  no  substitutes  to  take  their  place."  ° 

The  Education  Commission  of  1891  summarised  the  dis- 
abilities and  consequent  weakness  of  the  existing  Boards 
of  Management,  The  Commissioners  recommended  the 
partial  introduction  of  School  Boards,  their  establish- 
ment being  limited  to  areas  where  school  attendance 
shpuld  be  made  compulsory. 

The  Act  of  1905  instituted  School  Boards,  either 
divisional  or  municipal,  throughout  the  Colony.  By  the 
end  of  1908  the  control  of  all  State-aided  Public  Schools 
had  been  duly  transferred  to  the  School  Boards  of  their 
respective  areas. 

In  May  1910  the  Cape  Colony,  Orange  Free  State,  Natal, 
and  Transvaal  united  to  form  the  Union  of  South  Africa. 
By  the  Act  of  Union  elementary  and  secondary  education 
were  placed  under  the  Provincial  Governments.  The 
outstanding  event  during  the  last  years  has  been  the 
way  the  Administrator,  Sir  Frederic  de  Waal,  and  the 
Provincial  Council  assumed  control  of  education  as 
evidenced  by  the  large  number  of  Ordinances  on 
Education. 

The  present  administrative  organisation  is  fully  treated 
in  the  next  chapter. 

Inspection  and  Supervision. — In  the  earliest  days  the 
dominie  or  the  local  school  commissions  generally  exam- 
ined the  pupils  and  the  school.  Subsequently  the 
Scholarchs  and  later  the  Bible  and  School  Commission 
were  entrusted  with  the  supervision  of  the  schools.  The 
first  Superintendent-General  of  Education  was  expected 
to  inspect  every  school  at  least  once  a  year.  T>r.  Innes 
was  able  to  do  that  only  for  3  or  4  years. 


0  Great  Britain  Education  Department.    Op.  cit.  p.  42, 


The  Act  of  1865  authorised  the  appointment  of  Deputies 
of  the  Superintendent-General  whose  duties  would  be 
confined  entirely  to  inspection.  In  1872  the  two  first 
Deputy-Inspectors  were  appointed.  In  1882  there  was 
also  appointed  an  Inspector-General  of  Colleges  and 
Schools. 

Dr.  Muir  drew  up  a  scheme  of  Inspection  Circuits  for 
the  Colony,  and  issued  to  the  inspectors  a  circular  letter 
of  instructions  which  considerably  increased  their  respon- 
sibilities and  extended  their  duties. 

In  1906  a  High  School  Inspector  was  appointed.  From 
time  to  time  the  number  of  inspectors  was  added  to 
totalling  40  in  1919. 

In  1920  Dr.  Viljoen  changed  the  method  of  inspection 
of  schools.  Individual  inspection,  except  in  small  schools 
or  where  several  classes  are  grouped  under  one  teacher, 
has  been  replaced  by  class  inspection.  The  effect  of  this 
change  is  that  the  classification  of  the  pupils  will  be  in 
the  hands  of  the  principal  teacher,  while,  relieved  of  this 
duty,  the  inspector  will  have  more  time  to  look  into 
methods  of  instruction,  questions  of  staffing  and  organisa- 
tion, and  other  matters  of  detail  affecting  the  welfare  of 
the  school. 

Compulsory  Education. — The  School  Board  Act  of 
1905  had  made  provision  for  compulsory  education  up  to 
the  Fourth  Standard  for  all  European  children  between 
the  ages  of  7  and  14;  except  those  who  lived  beyond  the 
3-mile  radius  from  a  school.  If  the  parent  of  a  child 
living  beyond  the  3-mile  was  not  in  a  financial  position  to 
pay  the  cost  of  transportation  or  boarding  the  Depart- 
ment was  willing  to  contribute  thereto. 

In  the  1912  Annual  Report  of  the  Superintendent- 
General  the  different  inspectors  reported  on  the  efficiency 
of  compulsory  education  and  especially  on  the  trans- 
portation of  children  living  beyond  the  three  mile  radius 
of  a  school.  Only  6  of  the  31  inspectors  could  report  any 
progress  as  regards  the  transportation  of  children,  the 
others  reported  either  that  nothing  or  very  little  had  been 
done.  Transport  by  donkeys  or  donkey  carts  was  the 


30 

most  prevalent.  Many  difficulties  were  enumerated. 
Some  inspectors  were  in  favour  of  centralisation  and 
transportation  others  considered  the  giving  of  boarding 
grants  the  solution  to  the  problem.  Inspector  Satchel 
remarked : 

"  At  present  all  attempts  to  introduce  transport  by  donkey-carts ; 
which  is  certainly  the  cheapest  system,  are  frustrated  by  objec- 
tions about  the  inability  of  children  to  handle  the  animals — 
truly  a  wonderful  statement  about  South  African  children  - 
lack  of  camps,  the  amount  demanded  per  annum  for  such 
services,  and  so  forth,  while  in  more  than  one  case  the  Govern- 
ment was  requested  to  provide  forage  for  the  animals.  Such 
illustrations  make  it  clear  that  no  real  progress  can  be  made 
till  the  Boards  possess  much  wider  powers  in  regard  to  compul- 
sory school  attendance  and  transport;  probably  also  regular 
tariffs  are  needed  based  on  the  distance,  the  number  of  pupils 
to  be  conveyed,  and  the  nature  and  position  of  the  area 
concerned. 

The  present  system  of  Indigent  Boarder  Grants  merely  touches 
the  fringe  of  the  whole  question,  and  does  not  work  satisfactorily, 
for  if  all  children  of  school  age  living  beyond  the  3-mile  limit, 
of  the  .same  poor  class  as  that  from  which  the  present  boarders 
are  selected,  had  the  same  grants,  the  system  would  be  ruinous 
in  its  cost."  p 

In  the  Education  Ordinance  of  1913  provision  was  made 
whereby  the  existing  3-inile  radius  of  compulsion  may  be 
extended  and  the  age  and  standard  of  exemption  from 
school  attendance  may  be  raised.q 

In  1917  the  leaving  age  of  pupils  was  raised  to  15  years, 
and  the  standard  of  compulsion  to  Standard  V.  In  1919 
the  compulsory  attendance  age  period  was  extended  to 
seven-to-sixteen,  and  the  standard  of  exemption  was  raised 
to  Standard  VI.  From  1905  there  had  been  compulsion 
without  free  education.  Only  in  1920  was  primary 
school  education  made  free.  The  Consolidated  Education 
Ordinance  of  1921  finally  saw  the  removal  of  the  3-mile 
radius  of  exemption. 


p  Report  of  the  Sup.-Gen.  of  Ed.  for  year  ending  30th  September, 

1912.  p.  20. 

q  Report  of  the  Sup.-Gen.  of  Ed.  for  year  ending  30th  September, 

1913.  p.  9. 


11 

The  Schools. — There  have  been  two  lines  along  which  a 
solution  to  the  problem  of  educating  the  rural  child  has 
been  sought.  Either  the  school  has  to  be  brought  to 
the  child  or  the  child  to  the  school.  The  itinerant  school- 
master and  his  successors  the  tutor  and  governess  brought 
the  school  to  the  farm  home.  In  1812  there  wer$  estab- 
lished the  so-called  "koster  scholen "  (church  clerk 
schools).  The  teachers  of  these  schools  were  to  be  the 
resident  church  clerks,  if  competent,  and  they  were  to 
receive  a  salary  from  the  Government,  a  grant  of  a  piece 
of  land,  and  half  of  the  school  fees/ 

In  1816  the  Commission  reported  'that  the  Church  Clerk 
Schools  were  being  but  poorly  attended  and  that  little 
advantage  had  been  derived  from  them,  the  inhabitants 
of  the  country  districts  seeming  to  prefer  private  teachers 
"whom  every  colonist  procures  as  he  can";  that  it  had 
been  unable  to  carry  out  its  project  for  establishing  free 
schools  in  the  country  districts.8 

In  1822  established  (English)  schools  were  opened  at  6 
centres  in  the  country.  They  were  to  give  elementary 
instruction  free  to  all.1 

Towards  the  end  of  1843  state-aided  schools  came  into 
existence  because  the  established  schools  did  not  reach  ^he 
children  in  the  outlying  districts.  These  aided  schools 
were  founded  and  maintained  largely  by  local  effort  and 
assisted  by  small  grants  in  aid  from  Government.  The 
residents  provided  the  school-room  and  the  teacher's 
house,  and  a  committee  was  elected  by  those  who  contri- 
buted to  the  school  funds.  The  committee  fixed  the  school 
fees  and  appointed  the  teacher,  subject  to  the  approval 
of  the  Superintendent-General.11 

By  Act  No.  13  of  1865  public  schools  of  the  Third 
Class  were  established  among  the  rural  population.  The 
provisions  made  were  found  to  be  insufficient  and  the 
other  line  of  attack  was  tried  in  1873  by  the  institution 


r  Great  Britain  Education  Department.     Op.  cit.  p   12. 
8  Ibid  p.  14. 
*  Ibid  p.  15 
u  Ibid  p.  27. 


32 

of  District  Boarding  Schools.  Boarding  departments 
were  also  started  in  connection  with  the  ordinary  public 
schools. 

The  establishment  of  Private  Farm  Schools  in  1884  was 
an  official  recognition  of  the  work  of  the  private  tutor  or 
governess.  Grants  in  aid  and  capitation  grants  were 
not  to  be  paid  unless  the  farm  or  homestead  where  the 
children  resided  was  situated  not  less  than  six  miles  from 
a  public  school,  arid  unless  there  were  not  less  than  five 
children  under  regular  instruction/ 

The  housing  and  boarding  problem  in  connection  with 
the  rural  school  led  to  the  supply  by  the  Education 
Department  of  Transportable  School  Buildings  in  1912, 
1913  and  1914. 

"  A  constant  difficulty  is  the  provision  of  suitable  buildings 
for  single-teacher  schools  in  the  country.  The  small  size 
and  short  life  of  the  majority  of  these  schools  make  it  impossible 
to  solve  -the  problem  by  the  erection  of  permanent  buildings  by 
the  Administration.  A  system  of  portable  buildings  has  been 
tried;  but  the  venture  so  far  has  not  proved  very  satisfactory. 
In  many  places  the  only  .solution  is  to  hire  buildings.  As  might 
be  expected  the  buildings  hired  are  of  widely  different  character. 
Some  of  the  little  country  school  buildings  are  very  creditable 
indeed ;  the  occupation  of  others  can  be  justified  only  on  the  • 
ground  that  if  they  were  not  used  children  would  be  forced  to 
go  without  education."  3.  » 

•  Dr.  Viljoen  has  regraded  the  schools  as  primary, 
secondary,  and  high  schools.  These  are  described  in  the 
next  chapter. 

The  Teachers. — The  earliest  teacher  at  the  Cape  was 
the  sieckentrooster  (sick  comforter).  Besides  visiting  the 
sick  the  sieckentrooster  was  also  voorlezer,  i.e.  he  con- 
ducted divine  service  every  Sunday  and  read  a  sermon. 


v  Great  Britain   Education  Department.     Op.   cit.  p.   69. 

3     Report  of  the  S.-G.  of  Ed.  for  year  ended  31st  December,  1918, 
p.  13. 


13 

"  The  sick  comforter  or  voorlezer  remained  for  a  century  and 
a  half  the  central,  though  by  no  means  the  only  figure  in  the 
Cape  public  school  rooms.  During  the  whole  period  of  the  rule 
of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company  where  a  new  voorlezer  was 
appointed  to  a  village  in  a  newly  founded  district  or  where  a 
vacancy  was  x  filled,  the  duties  of  schoolmaster  were  invariably 
attached  to  the  office.  In  some  cases,  however,  an  applicant 
was  appointed  as  public  schoolmaster  without  performing  the 
duties  of  voorlezer.  Although  the  practice  of  combining  the 
office  of  public  schoolmaster  with  that  of  voorlezer  was  more 
or  less  consistently  followed,  it  was  not  before  1779  that  the 
two  offices  were  made  inseparable. 

Occupying  an  important  and  dignified  post  in  the  church,  the 
voorlezer  was  selected  with  as  great  care  as  the  circumstances 
permitted,  and  being  under  the  continual  supervision  of  the 
ministry  and  the  consistory,  he  usually  carried  out  his  duties 
conscientiously,  and  was  well  qualified  to  give  the  children 
instruction  in  the  rudimentary  subjects,  reading,  writing,  and 
arithmetic,  and  in  religion  to  fit  them  for  church  membership."  w 

The  School  Ordinance  of  Governor  de  Chavonnes  stated 
that  the  Governor  and  Council  were  to  be  satisfied  of  the 
character  and  doctrine  of  the  teacher,  who  had  to  sub- 
scribe to  the  doctrines  of  the  church  as  laid  down  in  the 
Articles  of  the  Senate  of  Dordrecht. 

The  country  schools  could  not  obtain  teachers  and  the 
law  made  no  provision  for  obtaining  them.  In  many 
cases  the  task  of  educating  the  young  was  entrusted  for 
short  periods  to  sailors  and  soldiers,  who  had  been 
discharged  from  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company, 
and  who  were  almost  always  men  of  very  scant  education. 
These  itinerant  schoolmasters  travelled  about  from  one 
farm  to  another,  staying  from  about  6  to  1.2  months  at 
each  place.  In  this  way  they  taught  tbe  children  reading, 
writing  and  sometimes  arithmetic  and  this  was  generally 
the  only  schooling  such  children  ever  received. 


w  Eybers  E.  Educational  Development  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 

1652-1839,     p.  16. 

Compare  similar  development  in  the  Dutch  Schools  of  New 
Netherland.  See  Kilpatrick  W.  H.  The  Dutch  Schools  of  New 
Netherland  and  Colonial  New  York.  U.S.  Bureau  of  Ed  Bulletin 
1912,  No.  12. 


14 

In  1743  it  was  resolved  that  no  one  be  allowed  to 
teach  unless  he  had  been  examined  by  the  kerkeraad 
(church  board).  Notwithstanding  the  re-issue  in  1769  of 
the  prohibition  regarding  the  employment  of  discharged 
servants  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company,  the  practice 
continued  to  be  followed.2" 

In  1791  the  Scholarchs  described  the  sad  state  of 
affairs  as  due  to  the  insufficient  number  and  poor  quality 
of  the  schoolmasters,  men  who  h,ad  never  been  trained  to 
that  employment,  whose  handwriting  was  only  tolerable, 
spelling  bad,  and  arithmetic  no  further  advanced  than  the 
rule  of  three.  It  was  recommended  that  competent 
teachers  should  be  obtained  from  Holland  at  fixed 
salaries. 

The  School  Commission  of  1809  complained  that  the 
teachers  were  incompetent  and  made  school-keeping  a 
mere  speculation  until  something  better  turned  up. 

Dr.  Innes  imported  a  number  of  Scotch  teachers  from 
time  to  time  and  these  men  proved  of  inestimable  value 
to  the  cause  of  education  in  South  Africa,  as  did  the 
Scotch  ministers  introduced  in  1821  and  thereafter  to 
take  charge  of  the  parochial  duties  of  the  Dutch  Reformed 
Church, 

The  teachers  imported  from  Holland  and  Scotland 
were  not  sufficient  to  meet  the  need.  A  pupil-teachers' 
system  was  introduced  in  1859  and  again  abolished  in 
1864.  An  Elementary  Teachers'  Certificate  was  insti- 
tuted in  1872,  and  it  was  stipulated  that  no  one  there- 
after should  be  appointed  to  any  post  in  a  state-aided 
school  unless  he  had  this  certificate  or  a  higher  one.  This 
certificate  qualified  the  holder  only  for  the  charge  of 
either  public  schools  of  the  Third  Class  or  of  Mission 
Schools/ 

In  1874  a  new  pupil  teachers'  system  was  introduced. 
Pupil  teachers  could  be  trained  at  any  school,  their 
salaries  were  raised,  the  principal  of  the  school  was  to 
give  them  special  instruction  and  was  to  receive  an 
allowance  for  each  of  them  who  succeeded  in  obtaining 

*  Great  Britain  Education  Department.    Op.  cit.  p.  5. 
y  Ibid  p.  45. 


15 

the  Elementary  Teachers5  Certificate.  The  candidates 
taught  in  the  school  for  a  large  part  of  the  day  and  were 
prepared  for  their  examination  in  their  headmaster's 
spare  time.  In  1879  the  Normal  School  was  opened  in 
Cape  Town,  and  in  1893  the  Training  Institute  at  Cape 
Town  and  the  Training  College  at  Wellington  began  to 
prepare  teachers. 

In  1893  Dr.  Muir  remodelled  the  pupil-teacher  system 
when  the  following  reforms  were  introduced: 

(a)  A  three-year  course  of  study  was  arranged  for  the  candidates 
whereby  they  should  receive  a  suitable  general  education  and 
proper  professional  training. 

(b)  Provision  was  made  that  candidates  were  to  have  a  certain 
limited  amount  of  practice  in  teaching.      The  actual  teaching 
done  was  not  to  exceed  two  hours  a  day. 

(c)  Candidates'  progress  was  to  be  tested  yearly  by  an  oral  and 
written  examination   and   by   actual   teaching  work  in   the 
presence  of  an  Inspector.2 

Candidates  to  the  teachers'  course  were  required  to 
have  passed  Standard  IV.  in  1893.  The  entrance  require- 
ment was  raised  to  Standard  V  in  1899,  to  Standard  VI 
in  1901,  and  to  Standard  VII  in  1912. 

From  1893  to  1908  Vacation  Courses  for  uncertificated 
teachers  were  held  at  Cape  Town,  Grahamstown  and  at 
other  convenient  centres.  By  this  means  an  immense 
number  of  teachers  received  a  short  course  of  professional 
training  and  as  many  as  1,737  were  considered  deserving 
of  certificates.  Since  1909  the  Vacation  Courses  have 
been  restricted  to  assist  teachers  desiring  to  qualify  in 
special  subjects.* 

At  first  pupil  teachers  were  trained  at  many  different 
and;  in  some  cases,  not  very  suitable  centres.  The 
Superintendent-General  explained  that  this  was  rendered 
necessary  by  the  vast  extent  of  the  country  and  that 
experience  had  shown  that  teachers  trained  in  the  larger 


*  Report  of  the  Sup.-Gen.  of  Ed.  for  year  ending  30th  September, 

1909.     p.  20. 
8  Report  of  the  Sup.-Gen.  of  Ed.  for  year  ending  30th  September, 

1909.  p.  22. 


16 

centres  are  unwilling  to  accept  positions  in  the  more 
remote  and  lonely  parts  of  the  Province.  In  a  consider- 
able number  of  the  schools  the  training  was  done  by  the 
ordinary  members  of  the  school  staff.  When  the  number 
of  pupils  became  sufficiently  large  the  Department  sanc- 
tioned the  appointment  of  a  teacher  specially  equipped 
and  specially  set  apart  for  the  work  of  training,  the  pupil- 
teacher  being  replaced  by  the  student-teacher  receiving 
more  tuition  and  less  un supervised  practice.  As  oppor- 
tunity offered  training  schools  were  organised.  In  1916 
it  was  made  compulsory  for  a  pupil-teacher  to  spend  at 
least  one  year  (the  final  year  of  a  3-year  course)  at  a 
Training  School  or  Training  College.  The  number  of 
training  schools  and  training  colleges  had  increased  to 
14  by  1919. 

Dr.  Viljoen  reorganised  the  teacher  training  course  so 
that  "in  future  all  entrants  to  the  profession  will  without 
exception  be  required  to  spend  at  least  two  years  at  a 
recognised  training  institution,  and  the  minimum  required 
for  admission  to  a  training  course  will  be  the  successful 
completion  of  the  junior  secondary  school  course  ending 
with  Standard  VIII."1 

Courses  of  Study. — At  first  the  elementary  instruction 
was  almost  entirely  religious  and  the  teaching  was  con- 
fined to  the  four  K?s.  Up  to  1821  the  instruction  in  the 
country  schools  had  been  wholly  in  Dutch,  but  in  that 
year  the  British  government  sanctioned  the  recommenda- 
tion of  fhe  Governor  (Lord  Charles  Somerset)  for  having 
all  schools  in  the  colony  conducted  by  English  masters. 

Here  was  the  beginning  of  the  historical  struggle  con- 
cerning language.  English  was  substituted  for  Dutch 
as  th,e  language  of  the  Colony.  All  official  documents 
were  to  be  in  English  and  English  alone  was  allowed  in 
the  Law  Courts.  This  change  resulted  in  considerable 
friction.  Theal  says: 


b  Report  of  the  Sup.-Gen.  of  Ed.  for  year  ended  31st  December, 
1919.  p.  7. 


17 

"  In  some  of  the  western  villages  much  hostility  was  shown 
to  the  establishment  of  the  schools,  because  the  instruction  in 
them  was  confined  to  the  English  and  Latin  languages.  The 
irritation  caused  by  the  order  to  substitute  English  for  Dutch 
as  the  official  language  of  the  colony  was  just  then  at  its  height 
Many  parents  regarded  the  schools  merely  as  instruments  for 
destroying  their  mother  tongue,  and  refused  to  allow  their  children 
to  attend,  so  that  in  one  or  two  instances  it  was  necessary 
to  withdraw  the  teachers,"  c 

Dr.  limes  drew  up  a  curriculum  in  1839  to  be  followed 
in  all  government  schools.  Instruction  in  religion  was  to 
be  given  in  three  divisions  and  secular  instruction  in  five 
divisions.d 

A  new  curriculum  was  introduced  by  Dr.  Dale  in  1873 
for  four  standards — a  word  used  then  for  the  first  time 
to  designate  a  grade  or  class.  The  school  course  extended 
over  five  standards  in  1884,  and  six  in  1887. 

The  School  Regulations  in  1877  dealt  with  the  subject 
of  industrial  education  in  District  Boarding  Schools. 
An  annual  grant  of  £50  was  offered  to  aid  in  the  expenses 
of  an  industrial  department  or  trade  class,  provided 
there  was  a  sufficient  attendance  of  pupils  of  suitable 
age,  but  the  industrial  education  given  amounted  to  little 
more  than  a  weekly  lesson  or  two  from  the  village 
carpenter.6 

In  1882  Parliament  repealed  the  regulations  which  pro- 
vided that  the  instruction  should  be  given  through  the 
medium  of  the  English  language  only.f 

The  Education  Commission  of  1891  referred  to  the 
language  struggle,  the  attempt  to  get  the  burghers  to 
learn  English,  and  their  reaction  to  it.  They  proposed 
that  Dutch  should  be  a  subject  in  the  School  Elementary 
Examination  and  that  the  scholars  in  the  public  schools 
should  be  made  proficient  in  the  use  of  the  two  languages.2 


°Theal  G.M.  History  of  South  Africa.  Vol.  Ill  (1891)  p.  259. 
d  Great  Britain  Education  Department.     Op.  cit.  p.  25. 
elbid  p.  53. 
f  Ibid  p.  59. 
"Ibid  p.   SO-S4. 


18 

Dr.  Muir  in  his  first  report,  dated  March  1893.  noted 
how  the  School  Elementary  examination  dominated  the 
field  of  education  and  remarked : 

"  If  it  comes  to  be  recognised  that  the  be-all  and  end-all 
of  an  elementary  school  training  is  the  passing  of  a  certain 
written  examination  in  grammar,  arithmetic,  history  and 
geography,  and  if  under  pressure  of  this  recognition  such  subjects 
as  reading  and  recitation,  drawing,  science,  singing,  sewing,  boys' 
handiwork,  drill,  and  physical  training  go  to  the  wall,  there  will 
he  uncommonly  little  to  hope  for  from  the  rising  generation."  h 

Dr.  Muir  introduced  what  he  called  his  "  Special 
Subjects  of  Instruction."  The  subjects  which  required 
and  which  have  received  special  attention  are  seven, 
namely:  Singing,  needlework,  woodwork,  drawing,  physi- 
cal culture,  domestic  science  and  nature  study.  The 
introduction  of  these  subjects  into  the  school  curriculum 
was  effected  not  all  at  once  but  successively.  Singing 
and  needlework  were  introduced  in  1893,  woodwork  in 
1894,  drawing  and  domestic  science  in  1904,  and  nature 
study  in  1908.1 

In  1895  a  Select  Committee  of  the  House  of  Assembly 
reported  on  Technical  Education  in  Agriculture.  As 
a  result  of  this  report  a  Government  School  of  Agricul- 
ture was  opened  at  Elsenburg  in  1898.  The  Eastern 
Districts  had  to  wait  until  the  year  1911  when  the  Groot- 
f  ontein  School  of  Agriculture  was  established. 

..In  1899  the  school  course  was  changed,  Standard  VII 
was  added,  the  Matriculation  classes  were  transferred 
from  the  colleges  to  the  schools  and  High  Schools  were 
instituted  so  that  there  were  9  standards  in  all.  In  1912 
a  tenth  standard  was  added. 

An  Education  Commission  with  Mr.  H.  E.  S.  Fremantle 
as  chairman  was  appointed  in  1910  and  delivered  it's 
reports  in  1912.  The  criticisms  of  this  Commission  were 
most  severe  against  the  rigidity  of  the  curriculum  and  the 


h  Great  Britain  Education  Department.     Op.  cit.  p.  90. 
1  Report  of  the  Sup.-Gen.  of  Ed.  for  year  ending  30th  September, 
1909.     p.  16-18. 


19 

teaching-  of  literature  from  reading  books.  "  Instead 
of  learning  to  read  and  write  the  children  are  drilled  to 
know  the  contents  of  a  primer  by  rote  and  to  spell  every 
word  it  contains."  It  condemned  the  method  of  teaching 
language  by  means  of  grammar  and  opposed  the  foreign 
medium,  emphasising  the  neglect  of  Dutch.  It  con- 
sidered bilingualism  as  educationally  sound,  but  did  not 
suggest  compulsory  bilingualism.  The  individual  inspec- 
tion system,  the  certification  of  teachers,  and  the  grading 
of  th/e  schools  were  all  strongly  criticised.  The  Commis- 
sion also  recommended  that  religious  and  moral  instruc- 
tion be  systematically  given  in  the  public  schools.3 

In  1912  the  Language  Ordinance  was  passed  by  the 
Provincial  Council.  The  salient  points  of  this  Ordinance 
were: 

(a)  The  instruction  of  the  pupils  up  to  and  including  the  fourth 
standard  in  the  home  language,  whether  English  or  Dutch; 

(b)  the  use  above  the  fourth  standard  of  one  or  other  or  both 
languages    as    media    of   instruction,    at    the   option    of   the 
parent ; 

(c)  the  giving  of  adequate  facilities  for  the  instruction  of  pupils 
in   the  language  not   used   as   the  medium   of  instruction; 

(d)  the  conditions  in  regard  to  the  training  of  teachers,  can- 
didates being  entirely  free  to  choose  the  medium  of  instruc- 
tion.1" 


A  single  state  syllabus  had  served  the  whole  country. 
There  had  been  a  total  absence  of  any  differentiation 
according  to  local  needs.  Eevised  curricula  were  in- 
troduced in  1921  by  Dr.  Viljoen  and  for  the  first  time 
provision  has  been  made  for  differentiated  secondary 
school  courses.  The  teaching  of  agriculture  in  the  High 
Schools  has  not  been  attempted. 


j  Report  of  the  Education  Commission  1912. 

k  Report  of  the  Sup.-Gen.  of  Ed.  for  year  ending  30th  September, 
1912,    p.  2. 


2*0 

Problems. — Rural  education  is  especially  rich  in 
problems  calling  for  solution  and  some  of  them  have 
only  lately  received  that  attention  and  study  which 
they  deserved.  The  problems  may  be  classified  as  those  in 
connection  with  (1)  the  one-teacher  schools;  (2)  consoli- 
dation and  transportation;  (3)  the  rural  teachers,  their 
preparation  and  board,  (4)  inspection  and  supervision, 
(5)  courses  of  study,  and  (6)  continuation  schools, 
part-time  education  and  extension  teaching.  It  is  the 
purpose  of  this  study  more  particularly  to  aid  in  the 
solution  of  some  of  the  problems  under  the  above  heads. 


II.     THE  PRESENT  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 
A.     Administrative  Organisation. 

By  the  act  of  Union  (South  Africa  Act,  1909,  section 
85,  sub-section  3)  elementary  and  secondary  education 
were  placed  under  the  provincial  administrations,  while 
higher  education  was  reserved  to  the  Union  Government. 
A  Minister  of  Education  is  responsible  for  the  activities 
of  higher  education  within  the  Union.  A  Minister  of 
Agriculture,  through  the  Agricultural  Department,  is 
responsible  for  the  agricultural  education.  There  is  no 
co-ordination  between  agricultural  schools  and  other 
educational  institutions.  The  former  are  chiefly  or 
wholly  vocational,  the  latter  academic  in  character. 

The  chief  executive  officer  of  the  Cape  Province  is  the 
Administrator,  who  is  appointed  by  the  Governor- 
General-in-Council  for  a  term  of  five  years. 

The  administrative  organisation  of  the  educational 
system  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  diagram : 


21 


o 

d 

I 


O 

> 

o 


o 


0) 
£3 


22 
1.     Central  Educational  Authority. 

The  general  control,  supervision  and  direction  of 
public  education,  other  than  higher  education,  is  vested 
in  the  Administrator.  (3)* 

There  is  a  Department  of  Public  Education  the  chief 
officer  of  which  is  the  Superintendent-General  of  Edu- 
cation, appointed  by  and  subject  to  the  direction  and 
control  of  the  Administrator.  (4a) 

The  function  of  the  Department  of  Public  Education 
is  the  performance  of  all  work  necessary  or  incidental 
to  the  control  of  education,  including  the  establishment, 
maintenance  and  general  control  of  schools ;  the  training, 
examination,  and  certification  of  teachers;  the  framing 
and  application  of  syllabuses  of  instruction;  the  insti- 
tuting and  conducting  of  school  examinations;  and  the 
inspection  of  schools,  teachers  and  pupils  (including  the 
practical  application  of  the  language  provisions  and 
medical  inspection.).  (4b) 

The  Superintendent-General  in  each  year  prepares  and 
submits  to  the  Administrator  an  annual  report  for  the 
last  preceding  calendar  year  giving  such  particulars 
in  regard  to  the  administration  of  the  Department  and 
•to  any  other  matters  affecting  education  as  he  thinks 
fit.  The  Administrator  lays  such  report  of  the 
Superintendent-General  before  the  Provincial  Council, 
(lla,  b) 

The  Finance  Department  of  the  Provincial  Adminis- 
tration deals  with  the  financial  administration  of  edu- 
cation and  is  in  charge  of  an  officer  known  as  the 
Controller  of  Educational  Finance,  who  is  appointed 
by  and  subject  to  the  direction  and  instruction  of  the 
Administrator.  The  functions  of  the  Finance  Depart- 
ment include  the  administration  of  all  funds  voted  in 
respect  to  (1)  salaries,  rents,  grants,  pensions  and 
allowances;  (2)  maintenance  and  repairs  of  all  proper- 
ties vested  in  the  educational  trustees;  (3)  requisites, 


*Numbers    refer     to    sections     in     the    Consolidated     Education 
Ordinance  1921. 


23 

furniture  and  equipment,  and  supply  thereof;  (4). 
travelling  and  transport  of  officials,  teachers,  and  pupils ; 
(5)  boarding  departments,  indigent  boarding  grants  and 
grants  for  superintendents  and  apprentices  in  trade  and 
industrial  schools;  (6)  loan  issues  and  loan  expenditure. 
It  is  also  the  function  of  the  Finance  Department  to 
control  (1)  revenues  accruing  to  the- Provincial  Eevenue 
Fund  from  educational  sources;  (2)  contributions  to 
pension  funds  administered  by  the  Provincial  Adminis- 
tration; (3)  investment  of  moneys  accruing  to  the 
pension  funds;  (4)  remission  of  tuition  fees;  and  (5) 
collection  of  all  school  fees,  including  all  boarding  fees, 
music  fees,  and  other  fees  of  any  description  payable  by 
parents  or  guardians  to  a  school  board.  (8a,  b,  c) 

2.     Local     Management      ~by     School     Boards     and 
Committees. 

Every  constituted  school  district  is  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  a  school  board,  which  consists  of  either  six, 
nine,  twelve,  or  eighteen  members,  as  the  Administrator 
may  determine.  Two-thirds  of  the  members  of  the  board 
are  elected  by  the  persons  entitled  to  vote,  and  of  the 
remaining  number  of  members,  one  is  nominated  and 
appointed  by  the  municipal  council  or  divisional  council 
according  as  the  district  is  a  municipal  or  divisional 
area,  and  the  remaining  number  is  appointed  by  the 
Administrator.  (15,  16,  18) 

All  members,  together  with  any  members  who  may 
have  been  appointed  to  fill  casual  vacancies,  go  out  of 
office  at  the  end  of  the  third  year  when  a  fresh  election 
is  held.  The  remaining  members  of  the  school  board 
> elect  a  successor  to  fill  a  vacancy.  (29,  34). 

No  alien,  criminal,  mental  defective,  or  unrehabili- 
'tated  insolvent,  may  serve  on  a  school  board;  but  no 
person  is  disqualified  by  sex  or  by  the  fact  that  he  is 
not  a  ratepayer.  (30,  31).  No  teachers  can  serve  on  a 
school  board,  however.  (195) 

Members  of  a  board  who  reside  at  a  distance  from  the 
place  of  meeting  are  entitled  to  an  allowance.  Otherwise 
no  payment  of  any  kind  is  granted  for  school  board 
service.  (41,  42) 


.  Whenever  any  expenditure  has  been  incurred  by  a 
board,  which  has  not  received  the  approval  of,  or  is  in 
excess  of  the  amount  approved  by  the  Controller,  the 
members  of  the  board,  voting  the  expenditure,  are  per- 
sonally liable  pro  rata.  (47a,  b) 

The  books  of  the  secretary  and  treasurer  of  every 
board  are  to  be  open  at  all  reasonable  hours  to  the 
inspection  of  any  officer  duly  authorised  in  writing-  there- 
to by  the  Controller.  (51) 

Every  board  is  a  body  corporate,  but  no  board  has 
power  to  sue  or  defend  in  any  court  of  law  in  its 
corporate  capacity  without  the  Administrator's  approval, 
(53) 

A  board  has  the  power  'of  establishing  and  maintain- 
ing such  schools  in  its  district  as  may  be  approved  by 
the  Department,  and  of  carrying  out  all  duties  incidental 
thereto;  provided  that  every  school  so  established  or 
maintained  must  be  strictly  undenominational  in 
character,  and  may  be  locally  cared  for  by  a  school 
committee.  Trade  and  industrial  schools,  technical 
schools,  music  schools,  schools  for  defectives,  and  such 
institutions  as  would  be  regarded  as  providing  higher 
education  are  not 'included.  (55a,  c) 

The  board  of  any  district  has  general  financial  man- 
agement of  all  schools  under  its  control,  including  the 
power  to  receive,  hold  and  administer  funds  or  bequests 
for  educational  purposes,  and  to  make  all  (necessary 
payments  for  the  administration  of  education  in  its  dis- 
trict subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Controller.  Every 
board  makes  an  estimate  of  its  income  and  expenditure 
for  the  ensuing  financial  year  and  forwards  a  copy  tcf 
the  Controller  for  approval.  (65,  66) 

Every  board  has  to  keep  in  such  form  as  is  prescribed 
by  the  Controller,  true  and  regular  accounts  of  money 
received  and  paid  on  account  of  the  board.  An  auditor 
appointed  by  the  Provincial  Auditor  examines  and  audits 
the  half  yearly  accounts.  (68) 

It  is  also  the  duty  of  the  board  to  afford  parents  having 
one  or  more  children  on  the  roll  of  a  school  an  opportunity 
of  electing  a  committee  for  such  school.  The  board 


25 

appoints  a  polling  and  returning  officer;  who  conducts 
the  election.  (75a,  76) 

The  committee  consists  of  three,  five  or  seven  mem- 
bers, as  the  board  may  decide,  and  is  elected  for  a  period 
of  three  years.  The  disqualifications  for  membership 
of  a  school  committee  are  the  same  as  those  for  a  school 
board.  Members  receive  no  payment  for  their  services. 
(75b,  79,  84) 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  committee  of  any  school  (1) 
to  exercise  a  general  supervision  of  the  school,  including 
the  fabric  and  grounds;  (2)  to  carry  out  such  rules  as 
may  be  framed  by  the  board ;  (3)  to  select  and  nominate 
teachers  for  appointment,  and  to  suspend  teachers;  (4) 
to  deal  with  the  representations  of  parents;  and  (5)  to 
advise  the  board  in  all  matters  affecting  the  welfare  of 
the  school.  (85) 

B.     Classification  of  Schools. 

The  schoo]s  have  been  classified  as  Farm  Schools, 
Primary  Schools,  Secondary  Schools,  High  Schools, 
Training  Schools  and  Training  Colleges,  Part-time 
Schools,  Trade  Schools,  Industrial  Schools,  and  Special 
Schools.  The  articulation  between  the  schools  may  be 
diagrammatically  shown  as  follows: 


'o 

CJ 


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1  '  ! 

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27 

1.  Farrn  schools. 

Farm  schools  may  be  established  or  will  be  recognised 
when  the  Superintendent-General  is  satisfied  that  the 
locality  needs  such  a  school,  that  it  can  maintain  the 
average  minimum  attendance  of  five  pupils  and  'that  it 
will  furnish  suitable  accommodation.  The  proprietor 
of  the  farm  on  which  the  school  is  situated,  or  some 
other  appropriate  person,  must  furnish  free  of  charge, 
and  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Superintendent-General 
both  board  and  residence  for  the  teacher  and  a  suitable 
school-room  for  the  pupils.  Instruction  is  given  in  the 
lower  standards  only,  the  highest  standard  in  'the  curri- 
culum of  any  such  school  being  subject  to  the  approval 
of  the  Superintendent-General.  If  for  a  period  of  two 
school  quarters  a  farm  school  has  failed  to  maintain  a 
minimum  average  attendance  of  five  pupils  it  is  closed. 
The  selection  of  the  teacher?  is  left  to  the  farmer  or 
other  appropriate  person  recognised  as  manager.  The 
suspension  and  dismissal  of  teachers  rest  with  the  man- 
ager also,  subject  to  a  definite  procedure.  (92) 

2.  Primary  Schools. 

Primary  schools  are  schools  organised,  staffed  and 
equipped  for  instruction  in  the  lower  standards.  A 
regular  attendance  of  at  least  ten  pupils  must  be  main- 
tained. A  farm  school  may  be  recognised  as  a  primary 
school  from  th,e  first  day  of  the  calendar  quarter  during 
which  a  minimum  average  attendance  of  ten  pupils  has 
been  attained. 

Primary  schools  are  classified  in  six  groups  according 
to  the  average  enrolment  in  all  standards  for  the  com- 
plete calendar  year  immediately  previous : — 


500  pupils  and  over 


300 
150      „ 

50      „ 

20 


Less  than  20  pupils 


Special  group. 
Group  A 
Group  B 
Group  C 
Group  D 
Group  E.  (91) 


28 

3.  Secondary  Schools. 

Secondary  schools  are  schools  organised,  staffed  and 
equipped  for  instruction  up  to  the  eighth  standard.  A 
secondary  school  may  be  established  mainly  or  exclusive- 
ly for  the  purpose  of  affording  education  above  the 
sixth  standard.  A  primary  school  may  be  recognised 
as  a  secomdary  school  if  a  minimum  average  enrolment 
of  twenty  pupils  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  standards  com- 
bined has  been  maintained  for  at  least  one  complete 
calendar  year.  A  secondary  school  may  be  degraded 
if  for  a  period  of  three  complete  calendar  years  it  has 
failed  to  maintain  a  minimum  average  enrolment  of  ten 
pupils  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  standards  combined. 
Secondary  schools  are  classified  in  two  groups  according 
to  the  average  enrolment  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
standards  combined  for  the  complete  calendar  year  im- 
mediately previous: 

20  pupils  and  over    :   Group  A 

Less  than  20  pupils    :  Group  B.       (90) 

4.  Nigh  Schools. 

High  schools  are  schools  organised,  staffed  and 
equipped  for  instruction  up  to  the  tenth  standard.  A 
high  school  may  be  established  mainly  or  exclusively  for 
the  purpose  of  affording  education  above  the  sixth  stan- 
dard. A  secondary  school  may  be  recognised  as  a  high 
school  if  a  minimum  average  enrolment  of  forty  pupils 
in  the  seventh  a'nd  eighth  standards  combined  has  been 
maintained  for  at  least  one  complete  calendar  year.  A 
high  school  may  be  degraded  if  for  a  period  of  three 
complete  calendar  years  it  has  failed  to  maintain  a 
minimum  average  enrolment  of  ten  pupils  in  the  ninth 
and  tenth  standards  combined.  High  schools  are  classi- 
fied in  three  groups,  according  to  the  average  enrolment 
in  standards  above  the  sixth  standard  for  the  complete 
calendar  year  immediately  previous: 
200  pupils  and  over  :  Group  A 
100  ,.  „  „  :  Group  B 
Less  than  100  pupils  :  Group  C.  (89) 


29 

5.  Training  Schools  and  Training  Colleges. 

Training  colleges  are  institutions  providing  full  facili- 
ties for  the  training  and  certification  of  primary 
teachers.  To  meet  qualifications  they  must  have  had 
for  at  least  one  complete  calendar  year  a  minimum 
average  enrolment  of  twenty  students,  who  have  com- 
pleted the  full  high  school  course  or  a  course  of  equivalent 
length.  Training  schools  are  institutions  specially  estab- 
lished for  the  training  of  teachers  but  which  do  not  come 
up  to  the  standard  laid  down  for  training  colleges. 

6.  Part-time  Schools. 

Part  time  schools  are  schools  providing  education  of  a 
general  or  special  character,  but  having  a  shortened 
program  and  term. 

7.  Trade  Schools,    Industrial    Schools    and    industrial 

Departments. 

Trade  schools  are  schools  for  the  education  and  the 
training  of  children  in  industrial  pursuits.  Industrial 
schools  for  indigent  European  children  may  be  estab- 
lished with  the  consent  of  the  Administrator  who  makes 
grants  in  aid  of  such  schools.  (120)  In  the  selection 
of  pupils  for  admission  to  an  industrial  school  preference 
is  given  to  children  of  the  absolutely  indigent  class,  who 
are  ordinarily  resident  at  a  distance  greater  than  three 
miles  from  any  existing  school.  Pupils  who  are  not  en- 
tirely indigent  may  be  admitted  but  in  such  cases  the 
Administrator  determines  the  amount  to  be  paid  by  such 
pupils.  (122)  Any  child  entering  an  industrial  school 
as  a  pupil  is  indentured  as  an  inmate  for  a  period  of 
not  less  than  three  years  or  for  such  period  as  the 
Controller  may  authorise.  In  no  case  may  the  articles 
of  indenture  expire  until  the  pupil  shall  have  attained 
the  age  of  eighteen  years.  (123)  Where  a  boarding 
house  for  indigent  children  has  been  established  a  single- 
teacher  industrial  department  for  the  education  and 


30 

training  In  industrial  pursuits  of  indigent  European 
children  (of  either  sex)  may  be  established  and  main- 
tained in  such  boarding-house,  provided  that  a  minimum 
enrolment  of  ten  pupils  can  be  maintained.  (126)  A 
boarding  department  for  indigent  children  may  be  estab- 
lished and  maintained  by  any  church  authority  or  other 
body  (not  being  a  board  or  a  committee  of  an  unde- 
nominational public  school)  or  any  association  of 
persons.  (268)  Every  child  maintained  in  an  indigent 
boarding-house  upon  completion  of  his  sixteenth  year  or 
upon  passing  the  sixth  standard,  whichever  shall  first 
occur,  is  indentured  as  a  pupil  of  an  industrial  depart- 
ment for  a  period  of  not  less  than  two  years,  or  at  least 
until  the  pupil  has  attained  the  age  of  eighteen  years. 
(130) 

8.     Special  Schools. 

Technical  schools,  commercial  schools,  art  schools  and 
music  schools  may  be  established  and  maintained  by  the 
Administrator.  No  pupil  who  has  not  completed  the 
primary  school  course  or  who  is  enrolled  at  a  secondary 
or  high  school  may  be  admitted  to  any  such  school  except 
by  the  special  consent  of  the  Superintendent-General. 
Where  a  school  for  the  blind,  a  school  for  deaf  mutes  or 
a  .school  for  other  defectives  has  been  established  grants 
in  aid  of  the  funds  of  such  institution  may  be  made  by 
1he  Administrator. 

C.     Support  of  the  System. 

There  is  no  longer  a  local  educational  rate.  Practically 
all  expenditure  on  the  school  system  is  borne  by  the 
central  exchequer.  (Education  Gazette  25th  Nov.  1920 
p.  489). 

-Whenever  the  revenue  of  any  board  has  been  or  will 
be  insufficient  to  meet  the  expenditure  in  the  duly  audited 
accounts  of  such  board  for  any  financial  year,  the  amount 
of  the  excess  of  expenditure  over  income  is  defrayed  from 
funds  to  be  voted  for  that  purpose  by  the  Provincial 
Council.  (67b) 


31 

For  the  purpose  of  enabling  any  board  to  carry  out 
any  undertaking  or  public  work,  the  Administrator  may, 
out  of  funds  voted  by  the  Provincial  Council  for  that 
purpose,  grant  loans  for  (1)  the  purchase  of  any  im- 
movable property:  (2)  the  building  and  erection  of  a 
new  school  or  schools;  (3)  the  enlargement  or  alteration 
of  an  existing  school  or  schools;  (4)  the  levelling,  gravel- 
ling and  fencing  of  school  grounds,  or  the  provision  of  a 
permanent  water  supply;  and  (5)  any  other  purpose  in 
respect  of  which  the  Administrator  shall  approve  of  the 
borrowing  of  money.  The  term  of  any  loan  shall  not 
exceed  forty  years.  (70a,  e) 

Any  municipal  council,  divisional  council,  or  other 
public  body  empowered  by  law  to  levy  rates,  may  by 
means  of  a  resolution,  taken  at  a  meeting  in  favour  of 
which  two-thirds  of  the  members  present  have  voted, 
grant  a  sum  of  money,  out  of  any  revenue  under  their 
control  in  aid  of  the  funds  of  any  undenominational 
public  school  or  institution  receiving  aid  and  situated 
within  the  area  of  their  jurisdiction.  (71) 

The  Administrator  may  from  time  to  time  make  grants 
in  aid  of  education  in  districts  where,  owing  to  the 
poverty  of  the  inhabitants,  it  is  not  practicable  to  make 
suitable  ordinary  provision  for  education.  Such  grants 
are  made  out  of  the  funds  voted  for  that  purpose.  (72) 

All  instruction  given  in  any  school  under  the  control 
of  a  board  is  free  in  all  classes  up  to  and  including  the 
sixth  standard.  This  includes  the  free  supply  of  books 
and  other  school  requisites.  Any  free  books  or  requisites 
lost  or  destroyed  by  a  pupil  have  to  be  replaced  at  the 
cost  of  the  parent  or  guardian  of  the  pupil.  It  is  lawful, 
however,  for  the  Department,  after  consultation  with  the 
board  concerned  to  determine  that  instruction  shall  not 
be  free  in  any  particular  school  or  schools  in  the  district. 
No  pupil  shall,  except  with  the  consent  of  the  Adminis- 
trator, receive  instruction  in  any  standard  in  a  fee- 
paying  school,  unless  the  fees  prescribed  by  the  Adminis- 
trator are  paid  by  the  parent  or  guardian  of  the  pupil. 
Pupils  attending  a  fee-paying  school  up  to  and  including 
the  sixth  standard,  are  supplied  with  books  and  other 
school  requisites  at  half  cost.  (247) 


32 

All  approved  charges  in  connection  with  an  industrial 
department  are  borne  by  the  Provincial  Eevenue  Fund, 
but  the  revenue  derived  from  the  sale  of  articles  pro- 
duced at  the  department  must  be  remitted  quarterly  to 
the  Provincial  Accountant  and  paid  into  the  said  fund. 
When  tb,e  revenue  exceeds  the  cost  of  the  raw  material 
supplied,  the  Administrator  may  apply  the  surplus  to 
the  payment  of  a  bonus  to  the  teacher  and  pupils.  (129) 

The  entire  cost  of  maintenance  of  any  training  college 
or  training  school  is  borne  by  the  Provincial  Revenue 
Fund.  (150b) 

Where  through  local  effort  or  through  other  means 
funds  become  available  for  the  purchase  of  books  for 
school  libraries  or  for  making  other  approved  provision 
of  a  special  nature  for  schools,  it  is  competent  for  the 
Controller,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  Superintendent- 
General,  to  grant  aid  on  the  pound  for  pound  principle 
toward  expenditure  incurred  for  anv  such  purpose, 
(375) 

D.     Inspection  and  Supervision, 

The  Administrator  may  from  time  to  time  appoint 
inspectors  of  schools,  medical  inspectors  of  schools,  and 
other  special  officers  to  assist  in  the  administration  of 
the  Department  of  Public  Education.  The  Superintendent- 
General  or  inspector  or  person  so  authorised  has  the 
right  of  entering  any  school  or  institution  at  any  time 
during  school  hours,  of  examining  into  the  'state  of 
the  buildings  and  school  premises,  or  the  organisation 
and  methods  of  instruction ;  of  ascertaining  the  progress 
of  the  children  under  instruction ;  and  of  inquiring 
generally  into  the  efficiency  of  the  school  from  local 
patrons;  and  of  calling  for  such  returns  as  he  may 
require,  in  order  to  obtain  satisfactory  information  on 
these  subjects.  (6,  5)  • 

Vacant  inspectorships  are  advertised  in  the  Education 
Gazette.  The  candidate  selected  becomes  a  member  of  the 
Public  Service  of  the  Union.  The  salary  attached  to  the 
post  is  £650  per  annuam  plus  the  appropriate  travelling 


33 

and  subsistence  allowance  when  absent  from  headquarters 
on  duty.  The  question  of  the  salary-scale  for  inspectors 
of  schools  is  still  under  consideration,  but  the  Public 
Service  Commission  states  that  "  the  salaries  of  inspec- 
tors will  be  raised  and  will  be  not  less  than  those  of 
principals  of  high  schools." !  The  school  inspectors  are 
permanent  officials,  holding  office  during  life  or  good 
behaviour. 

The  Administrator  may  also  provide  for  the  compul- 
sory medical  inspection  of  pupils,  student-teachers  and 
teachers  at  any  aided  school,  and  for  the  exclusion  on 
medical  grounds  of  pupils,  student-teachers  or  teachers 
from  any  such  school.  Such  medical  inspection  shall 
mean  the  physical  examination  of  teachers  who  are  sus- 
pected of  being  a  source  of  danger  to  pupils ;  the  inspec- 
tion of  school  buildings  and  premises;  and  the  consider- 
ation of  all  matters  affecting  the  health  and  physical 
condition  of  pupils.  (7) 

E.     School  Grounds,  Buildings  and  Equipment. 

The  Administrator  may  make  loans  to  any  board  for 
the  purchase  of  immovable  property,  the  building  and 
erecting  qf  a  new  school,  the  enlargement  or  alteration 
of  an  existing  school,  the  levelling,  gravelling  and  fenc- 
ing of  school  grounds,  or  the  provision  of  a  permanent 
water  supply.  (310) 

The  property  on  which  a  loan  is  advanced  is  vested  in 
the  educational  trustees  consisting  ;of  tb,e  Provincial 
Secretary,  the  Superintendent-General  of  Education,  the 
Chairman  of  the  board  for  the  district,  and  their  respec- 
tive successors  in  office.  (311) 

Where  it  is  found  necessary  to  hire  premises  for  educa- 
tional purposes  no  lease  may  be  entered  into  by  any 
board  or  committee  without  the  previous  approval  of 
the  Controller.  (314) 


1  Education  Gazette  3rd  November,  1921.  p.  337. 


34 

The  buildings  of  any  public  school  or  educational 
institution  may  not  be  used  for  any  purpose  other  than 
school  purposes  without  the  sanction  of  the 
Superintendent-General.  (315) 

The  board  maintains  in  good  order  and  repair  all  im- 
movable property  vested  in  the  educational  trustees 
from  moneys  voted  for  the  purpose  and  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Controller.  (316) 

The  Administrator  may  approve  of  the  sale  of  any 
school  property  where,  in  his  opinion,  the  interests  of 
education  will  not  thereby  suffer.  (317)  Any  property 
transferred  to  educational  trustees  is  free  from  transfer 
duty,  stamp  duty,  or  fees  of  office.  (318) 

No  new  public  or  private  township  may  be  established 
and  no  new  municipality  or  village  management  board 
area  may  be  proclaimed,  until  land  not  less  than  two 
acres  in  extent,  situated  within  the  proposed  township 
or  area,  and  approved  by  the  board  and  the  Department, 
has  been  set  aside  free  of  payment  for  school  purposes 
and  vested  in  the  educational  trustees.  (320) 

The  Administrator  makes  regulations  for  the  supply  of 
books  and  requisites  to  any  state-aided  school  or  educa- 
tional institution.  (319) 

F.     The  Teaching  Force. 

1.     The  Training  of  Teachers. 

Provision  is  made  within  the  Province  for  the  training 
and  certification  of  infant  school,  primary,  and  secondary 
teachers  and  for  teachers  of  special  subjects.  The  con- 
ditions of  admission  to  any  course  of  training,  the  re- 
quirements of  any  such  course,  the  admission  of  candi- 
dates to  any  qualifying  examination,  and  all  matters 
incidental  to  the  conduct  of  such  examinations  are 
controlled  by  the  Superintendent-General.  (145,  146) 

The  Administrator  establishes  and  maintains  institu- 
tions for  the  education  and  training  of  teachers.  The 
management  is  vested  in  the  Superintendent-General, 
but  a  local  advisory  committee  may  assist  in  the  manage- 


merit,  or  a  training  school  may  be  transferred  to  the 
school  board  in  whose  district  it  is  situated.  The  control 
and  management  of  a  training  college  are  vested  in  the 
office  of  the  Superintendent-General.  All  appointments 
and  promotions  of  teachers  in  training  schools  and 
training  colleges  are  made  by  the  Superintendent-General. 
(148,  149) 

Grants  in  aid  for  the  education,  trainino-  and  mainten- 
ance of  individual  students  at  any  training  institution 
are  made  by  the  Controller,  The  student  has  to  enter 
into  an  agreement  and  must  on  completion  of  the 
approved  course  of  training  undertake  employment  as 
a  teacher  in  a  state-aided  school  within  the  Province 
for  a  period  of  not  less  than  two  years.  Tuition  fees 
at  the  rate  of  six  pounds  per  annum  are  charged  to 
students  in  training  schools  and  training  colleges.  Free 
tuition  may  be  granted  to  students  whose  parents  are 
not  in  a  position  to  pay  for  such  tuition.  (153,  155) 

The  school  board  or  the  committee  or  the  managers 
concerned  may  make  arrangements  in  any  school  for 
facilities  in  practice  teaching  for  student-teachers.  (156) 

There  is  a  loan  fund  for  the  purpose  of  providing 
financial  assistance  to  a  student-teacher  (more  especially 
male  students),  who,  with  the  aid  ordinarily  granted  is 
unable  to  meet  his  necessary  expenses.  No  interest  is 
charged  upon  any  loan  granted,  but  no  student  may 
borrow  from  the  loan  fund  more  than  a  total  amount 
of  £60.  The  student  undertakes  to  repay  the  loan  and 
to  serve  as  a  teacher  until  the  loan  has  been  repaid. 
(157-160) 


2.     Certification  of  Teachers. 


The  following  diagram  illustrates  how  the  different 
certificates  mentioned  below  are  obtained : — 


STUDY 


w 
« 

o' 
0 


C*H    TH 


TIME  SPENT 


O 
H 

QQ 
OQ 

H 

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H 


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O 

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EH 
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P3    d 
H  ^ 

°i 

O 


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H 
co 


o 


a 

P 


i    i__ 

I  o 


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I  O 


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37 

(1).  Primary  Teachers'  Lower  Certificate.  (P.T.L.C.). 
The  passing  of  the  Departmental  Junior  Certificate 
Examination  (taken  by  Standard  VIII  pupils)  admits  a 
candidate  to  a  two-year  course  at  a  training  school  or 
training  college.  The  candidate  must  be  physically  fit 
for  the  course  and  for  the  teaching  profession.  There 
is  no  age  requirement.  In  each  year  there  is  a  practical 
examination  conducted  by  the  Inspectors  of  the  Depart- 
ment, and  at  the  end  of  the  year  a  written  examination 
is  held.  To  those  who  are  successful  a  Primary  Teachers- 
Lower  Certificate  is  awarded  after  one  years'  teaching 
experience. 

(2).  Primary  Teachers'  Higher  Certificate.  (P.T.H.C.)  , 
All  candidates  must  h,ave  passed  the  Matriculation 
Examination  (taken  by  Standard  X.  pupils)  or  hold  the 
Senior  Certificate.  They  must  then  take  a  two-year 
course  at  a  training  college.  To  those  who  pass  the 
practical  and  written  examinations  a  Primary  Teachers' 
Higher  Certificate  is  awarded  after  a  year's  successful 
teaching.  (Pamphlet  No.  2,  Department  of  Education). 

(3).  Secondary  Teachers'  Lower  Certificate.  (S.T.L.C,)- 
After  passing  the  Matriculation  Examination  the  can- 
didate must  have  followed  the  B.A.  or  B.  Sc.  course  for 
a  year  at  a  University  and  thereafter  a  two-year  course 
of  teacher  training.  The  certificate  is  granted  by  the 
University. 

(4).  First   Class    Teachers'    Certificate    of    the   Union. 

(Tl). 

Anyone  who  holds  the  degree  of  B.A.  or  B.  Sc.  is 
permitted  to  enter  on  an  eighteen  months  course  for  the 
above  certificate.  The  Union  Department  of  Education 
prescribes  the  syllabus  and  regulates  the  examinations. 

(5).  Secondary  Teachers'  Higher  Certificate.  (S.T.H.C.)- 
After  passing  the  B.A.  or  B.Sc.  examination  the  candi- 
date has  to  follow  a  two-year  course  of  training  at  a 
University. 


38 

The  University  of  Stellenbosch  awards  a  B.  Ed.  degree 
to  those  who  hold  their  Bachelor's  degree  and  the  Tl 
certificate  after  an  additional  six  months  of  study  and  on 
presenting  a  suitable  thesis  in  their  chief  subject. 
(Jaarboek  van  de  IJniversiteit  van  Stellenbosch,  1921. 
p.  163). 

(6).  Infant  School  Teachers'  Certificate.   (I.S.T.C.). 

A  new  one-year  training  course  for  infant  school 
teachers  has  been  instituted  to  which  those  who  hold  the 
Primary  Teachers'  Lower  Certificate  are  admitted. 
Matriculated  students  may  also  take  this  course  in  place 
of  the  second  year  of  the  Primary  Higher  course.  x  (Educa- 
tion Gazette  10th  March,  1921.  p.  947). 

(7).     Special  Subjects  Teachers'  Certificate. 

Provision  is  made  for  the  training  of  teachers  of  art, 
music,  cookery,  needlework,  woodwork,  and  physical 
culture. 

3.     Appointment,     Tenure,    Classification,    Salary    and 

Pension. 

The  total  number  of  teachers  to  be  employed  in  every 
school,  the  grading  of  the  posts  to  be  occupied,  and  the 
number  of  men  and  women  respectively,  are  determined 
by  the  Superintendent-General.  A  vacant  post  or  a  new- 
teaching  post  has  to  be  advertised  by  the  responsible 
school  board  in  the  Education  Gazette.  The  school  com- 
mittee concerned  transmits  to  the  board  its  selection 
and  nomination  for  transmission  to  the  Superintendent- 
General  for  approval,  together  with  a  detailed  list  of  the 
various  applicants  and  any  other  relevant  information. 
The  board  submits  to  the  Superintendent-General  the 
nomination  of  the  committee,  adding  any  remarks  which 
it  may  desire  to  make.  Where  the  nomination  is  approved" 
the  teacher  selected  is  appointed  by  the  board.  Where 
the  nomination  is  not  approved  the  committee  proceeds 
to  make  a  fresh  selection  and  nomination  from  among 
those  teachers  who  origin  ally  applied,  or  alternatively 
calls  for  further  applications.  All  promotions  of 


39 

assistant-teachers  on  the  staff  of  a  school  vest  in  the 
Superintendent-General  after  consultation  with  the  school 
committee.  (177,  178) 

The  appointment  of  a  teacher  may  be  terminated  by 
the  teacher  giving  a  three  months'  notice  on  or  before  the 
first  day  of  the  months  of  January,  April,  July  or  October. 
Where  a  teacher's  appointment  is  terminated  by  the 
Superintendent-General  owing  to  reorganisation  or  owing 
to  the  services  of  a  teacher  becoming  unnecessary,  the 
board  has  to  give  the  teacher  three  months'  notice  as 
above.  Any  teacher  may  with  his  consent  be  transferred 
from  a  post  in  any  school  to  any  vacant  post  of  equal 
or  higher  grade  in  any  other  school.  (181,  182) 

Any  teacher  who  disobeys,  disregards,  or  makes  wilful 
default  in  carrying  out  a  lawful  order  given  to  him  by 
any  body  or  person  having  authority  to  give  the  same,  or 
who  by  word  or  conduct  displays  insubordination ;  or  is 
negligent  or  indolent  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties,  or 
absents  himself  from  his  school  without  valid  reason ; 
or  is,  or  becomes  inefficient  or  incompetent  for  the  dis- 
charge of  his  duties  from  causes  within  his  own  control ,- 
or  habitually  uses  to  excess  any  intoxicant  or  drug;  or 
commits  any  offence  against  good  morals;  or  discloses 
confidential  information  acquired  in  the  course  of  his 
duties,  otherwise  than  in  the  discharge  thereof;  or  com- 
mits any  criminal  offence;  or  uses  his  position  as  a 
teacher  to  further  private  or  party  political  aims  or  to 
encourage  disobedience  or  resistance  to  the  laws  of  the 
State;  or  engages  in  any  work  for  remuneration  or  profit 
outside  of  his  position  as  a  teacher  which,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  Superintendent-General,  is  prejudicial  to  the  proper 
performance  of  his  duties  or  to  his  position  as  a  teacher, 
is  guilty  of  misconduct.  A  teacher  may  not  hold  any 
public  office  which,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Superintendent- 
General,  is  calculated  to  interfere  with  the  due  perform- 
ance of  his  duties.  No  complaint  against  any  teacher  is 
entertained,  unless  supported  by  a  sworn  declaration. 
When  a  school  committee,  after  due  inquiry,  thinks  that 
a  teacher  should  be  dismissed,  it  communicates  a  full 
report  of  the  circumstances  to  the  board  together  with 


40 

its  recommendation  in  the  case.  The  board  investigates 
the  case  to  confirm  or  otherwise  deal  with  the  action 
proposed  by  the  committee,  and  submits  to  the 
Superintendent-General  for  decision  the  board's  recom- 
mendation together  with  all  reports.  (183,  185) 

For  the  purpose  of  assisting  the  Superintendent- 
General  the  Administrator  may  appoint  a  board  of  repre- 
sentatives of  teachers,  to  be  known  as  the  Teachers' 
Advisory  Board,  to  whom  the  case  of  any  teacher  charged 
with  a  violation  of  the  conditions  of  service  may  be 
referred  for  consideration  and  report.  The 
Superintendent-General  after  consideration  may  dismiss 
the  charge;  or  caution  or  reprimand  the  teacher;  or  im- 
pose any  one  or  more  of  the  following  penalties,  namely : 
stoppage  of  increments  of  pay  or  stoppage  of  good  service 
allowance  or  reduction  of  salary  for  a  fixed  period,  or 
demand  from  the  teacher  immediate  resignation  of  his 
post;  or  discharge  the  teacher,  with  or  without  notice, 
from  his  post,  or  debar  him  from  further  employment  in 
any  school  or  institution  under  the  Department  ifor 
such  period  as  the  Superintendent-General  may  think  fit ; 
or  summarily  dismiss  him  from  the  service  of  th.e  Depart- 
ment. Whenever  a  teacher  is  dismissed  from  the  service 
of  the  Department  all  papers  connected  with  the  case 
must  be  laid  before  the  Provincial  Council.  (190,  187, 
191) 

The  hours  of  actual  instruction  (or  in  the  case  of  a 
principal  teacher  instruction  and  supervision)  to  be  given 
by  a  full-time  teacher  shall  ordinarily  be  twenty-five 
hours  per  week.  A  principal  teacher  may  require  an 
assistant  teacher  to  give  instruction  in  any  standard 
or  in  any  subject.  (193,  194) 

Leave  of  absence  may  be  granted  to  teachers  either  as 
furlough,  or  leave  on  grounds  of  ill-health,  or  special 
leave,  or  military  leave.  Furlough  may  be  granted  after 
five  years'  service  either  for  a  period  of  three  months 
at  full  pay  or  for  a  period  of  six  months  at  half  pay. 
Three  months'  furlough  on  full  pay  is  granted  to  a 
teacher  immediately  prior  to  retirement  on  pension. 
Absence,  due  to  illness,  and  not  exceeding  seven  days  in 


41 

duration  is  dealt  with  by  the  school  board.  When  such 
absence  exceeds  seven  days  it  must  be  reported  by  the 
board  to  the  Superintendent-General,  a  medical  certifi- 
cate attesting  to  the  nature  of  the  illness  and  the  necessity 
for  the  absence  being  submitted  together  with  the  appli- 
cation for  leave.  Special  leave  without  salary  may  be 
granted  to  a  teacher  for  a  period  not  exceeding  twelve 
months.  This  limit  may  be  extended  in  the  case  of  a 
teacher  who  is  about  to  pursue  or  has  pursued  an 
approved  course  of  study.  Such  special  leave  pre- 
serves the  continuity  of  service,  but  is  not  itself  reckoned 
as  service.  Full  salary  may  be  granted  by  the 
Superintendent-General  to  a  teacher  who  is  absent  from 
duty  for  the  purpose  of  isolation  or  segregation  under 
lawful  compulsion,  or  sitting  for  an  examination,  or 
performing  any  special  duty  at  the  request  or 
with  th,e  consent  of  the  Superintendent-General.  The 
Superintendent-General  may  grant  military  leave  to  any 
teacher  to  proceed  on  active  military  service  or  on  peace 
training.  A  teacher  is  entitled  as  of  right  to  military 
leave  when  absent  from  duty  in  compliance  with  any 
lawful  order.  (196-200) 

The  retiring  age  for  teachers  normally  is  55  years  in 
the  case  of  Avomen,  and*  60  years  in  the  case  of  men.  but 
a  woman  teacher  may  voluntarily  retire  at  the  age  of  50 
years  and  a  man  at  the  age  of  55.  (203) 

Every  school  with  more  than  one  teacher  is  placed  under 
the  supervision  and  direction  of  a  principal  teacher. 
Any  assistant  teacher  acting  as  principal  teacher  for  a 
period  of  not  less  than  one  month  is  classified  for  that 
period  as  a  principal  teacher.  If  in  the  primary 
standards  of  a  high  school,  which  has  no  separate  prim- 
ary department,  the  enrolment  has  been  150  or  more 
during  the  complete  calendar  year  immediately  previous, 
one  primary  assistantship  may  be  classified  as  a  chief 
primary  assistantship.  In  any  mixed  high  school  of  group 
A  or  group  B  or  mixed  secondary  school  of  a  special  group 
one  secondary  assistantship  may  be  classified  as  a  chief 
secondary  assistantship;  and  the  occupant  of  that  post, 
who  must  be  of  the  opposite  sex  to  the  principal  teacher, 


42 


shall  exercise  such  supervision  of  the  pupils  of  his  or 
her  own  sex  as  may  be  decided  upon  by  the  principal 
teacher  with   the   approval    of    the    school    committee 
(207,  209) 

Assistant  teachers  are  classified  as  (1)  secondary 
assistant  teachers,  those  whose  approved  main  duty  is 
the  instruction  of  pupils  above  the  sixth  standard  in 
high  schools  and  secondary  schools,  and  (2)  primary 
assistant  teachers.  For  salary  purposes  they  are  classi- 
fied in  the  following  categories  of  qualifications: 


(c) 


(d) 


(e) 


(f) 


P.T.L.C. 

P.T.L.C.    + 

P.T.H.C.  or  T2 

S.T.L.C.   or 

Tl  or 

S.T.H.C. 

or           1   Matric.    or 

or 

T3  +  Univ 

T2   + 

or 

T3 

T3  +   Matric. 

Higher  Kind.  C. 

Degree 

Univ. 

B.  Ed. 

or 

or 

Degree 

Elem.   Kind.  C 

T3    +    Interm.   C. 

The  following  are  the  scales  of  annual  salaries  for: — 
(1)     Principal  teachers: 


Women 


Men 


Institution 

Minimum 

Annual 
Increment 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Annual 
Increment 

Maximum 

i  Training    Colleges 

£500 

£10 

£600 

£75'0 

£15 

£900 

Training    Schools 

450 

10 

550 

675 

15 

825 

High    Schools 

Group    A 

500 

10 

600 

750 

15 

900 

Group  B 

450 

10 

550 

675 

15' 

825 

Group   C 

400 

10 

500 

600 

15 

750 

Secondary  Schools 

Group   A 

350 

10     ' 

450 

525 

15 

675 

Group   B 

310 

10 

410 

450 

15 

600 

Primary    Schools 

Special  Group 

350 

.10 

450 

525 

151 

675 

Group  A 

310 

10 

410 

450 

15 

600 

Group   B 

270 

10 

370 

375 

15 

525 

Group   C 

230 

10 

330 

300 

15 

450 

Agst's 

Asst's     |        15 

375 

Group  D 

Salary 

. 

Salary    I                 | 

Plus  £15 

75   '|        300 

+    £30  | 

Group  E 

Asst's 

11    I       270 

Asst's     I        15 

300 

Salary 

1 

Salary    | 

(2)  Certificated  teachers  employed  in  farm  schools, 
whether  women  or  men,  free  board  and  residence  being 
provided  in  each  case* 


!      Minimum 
£80 


Annual  Increment 


Maximum 

£110 


(3)     Chief  primary  assistant  teachers: 


Women 


Minimum 
£2]0 

|  Annual 
|  increment 

|      iii 

Maximum 
£300 

Minimum 
£270 

Annual 
increment 
£15 

|    Maximum 

j       £450    ......; 

(4)     Chief  secondary  assistant  teachers  and  assistant 
teachers  in  training  schools  and  training  colleges: 


Women                                                                Men 

Quajification 

Minimum 

Annual 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Annual 

Maximuuiij 

1 

Increment 

Increment 

J 

(c)   above 

£235 

£75 

£400 

£300  , 

£15 

£600      t 

(d)        ,, 

205 

75 

400 

345 

15 

600      \ 

(e) 

205 

75         |        400 

390 

15 

600      / 

(f>    „ 

325 

75                   400 

435 

15 

600     | 

(5V     Secondary   assistant  teachers: 


Women                                                            Men 

Qualiticatior  |  Minimum 
1 

Annual 
Increment 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Annual 
Increment 

Maximum 

(a)   above 

£135 

£75         j      £360 

£150 

£15 

£540 

(b)        „ 

165 

75 

360 

195 

15 

540    - 

(c)     •;, 

105 

75 

360 

240 

15 

540 

(d) 

225 

75 

360 

285 

15 

540 

<e> 

255         j           75 

360 

330 

15 

540 

(f)        „ 

285 

75 

360 

375 

15 

540 

(6)     Primary  assistant  teachers: 


Women 

Men                              . 

Qualification 

Minimum 

Annual 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Annual        |  Maximum; 

Increment  | 

Increment  j 

(a)   above 

£120         1         £75 

£270 

£135 

£15 

£405 

(b)        „ 

150 

75 

270 

180 

15 

40^     ' 

(c)        ,. 

ISO 

75          1         270 

225 

15 

405    '  ' 

(civ       „ 

180 

75 

2W 

225 

15 

:     405,;.; 

(e)        „ 
(f)        .. 

180 
180 

75                  270 

75         |        270 

225 
225 

15 
15 

405  ,  1  •. 
40^ 

44 

The  rate  of  remuneration  of  departmental  instructors 
and  instructresses,  teachers  of  special  subjects,  part-time 
teachers,  teachers  who  are  required  to  devote  considerable 
time  to  actual  teaching  work  outside  of  school  hours, 
and  un  certificated  teachers  is  determined  by  the 
Superintendent-General.  Where  a  house  is  provided  for 
a  teacher  there  is  deducted  one-sixth  of  his  pensionable 
salary,  or.  at  the  option  of  the  teacher,  8  per  cent,  of 
the  valuation  of  the  property  as  fixed  by  the  Provincial 
Valuation  Roll.  In  portions  of  the  Province  where,  by 
reason  of  long  distance  from  railway  communication 
or  unattractive  conditions  of  life,  it  is  difficult  to  obtain 
teachers,  local  allowances  may  be  paid  to  teachers,  but 
such  allowances  may  not  exceed  10  per  cent,  on  the  cash 
salary  of  the  particular  teacher  concerned.  The  Adminis- 
trator may  frame  regulations  authorising  the  payment 
of  travelling  expenses  for  teachers  on  taking  up  appoint- 
ments. (224-226,  374) 

A  Teachers'  I3ension  Fund  administered  by  the 
Controller  and  supported  by  4  per  cent,  deductions  from 
the  full  salary  of  every  teacher  is  also  maintained.  No 
teacher  first  taking  up  duty  after  the  age  of  forty  years, 
no  teacher  who  has  discontinued  and  subsequently 
resumed  his  service  after  the  age  of  forty  years,  and 
no  part-time  teacher  is  compelled  to  contribute  to  the 
pension  fund  though  they  may  all  elect  to  do  so.  After 
at  least  15  years'  continuous  service,  the  last  five  years 
of  which  must  have  been  rendered  under  the  Department, 
and  on  having  reached  the  age  of  50  years  in  the  case  of 
women,  and  55  years  in  the  case  of  men,  a  teacher  ma.T 
voluntarily  retire,  or  be  required  to  retire.  He  is  then 
granted  a  pension  equal  to  20  per  cent,  of  his  average 
annual  salary  during  the  5  years  immediately  preceding 
his  retirement,  the  pension  being  increased  at  the  rate 
of  1£  per  cent,  for  each  additional  year  of  service 
(whether  continuous  or  not)  up  to  a  maximum  of  65 
per  cent.  After  at  least  10  years'  continuous  service,  the 
last  5  years  of  which  must  have  been  rendered  under 
the  Department  if  medical  proof  is  produced  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  Superintendent-General  that  a  teacher 


45 

is  disabled  by  reason  of  ill-health  from  continuing  his 
duties,  he  may  be  placed  on  temporary  pension  for  a 
period  not  exceeding  5  years.  If  at  the  end  of  5  years 
the  disability  is  proved  to  be  permanent  he  is  granted 
a  permanent  pension.  Should  any  contributor  to  the 
pension  fund  die  before  being  granted  a  pension  a 
gratuity  equal  to  twice  the  total  contributions  made 
by  him  or  one  month's  salary  in  full  calculated  from  the 
day  of  his  death,  whichever  shall  be  the  greater,  is  paid 
to  his  nearest  of  kin.  Should  any  pensioner  die  before 
the  aggregate  amount  paid  or  payable  to  him  as  pension 
has  become  equal  to  the  total  amount  contributed  by  him, 
a  gratuity  equal  to  twice  the  amount  of  excess  payable  to 
him  as  pension  up  to  the  date  of  his  death  is  paid 
to  his  nearest  of  kin.  (229-235) 


4.     Training  of  Teachers  in  Service. 


The  Education  Gazette,  the  official  organ  of  the  Edu- 
cation Department,  has  during  the  last  few  years  had 
some  really  helpful  information  for  teachers,  informa- 
tion likely  to  be  useful  in  the  improvement  of  class 
instruction.  The  Department  has  not  of  late  conducted 
any  vacation  courses  for  teachers.  Vacation  courses 
in  botany  and  nature  study  have  been  held  at  Kirsten- 
bosch  under  the  auspices  of  the  Botanical  Society  of 
South  Africa.  The  course  extends  over  a  period  of 
three  weeks  and  only  eight  students  can  be  enrolled. 
The  University  of  Cape  Town  holds  a  vacation  course 
of  three  weeks  for  secondary  teachers.  Courses  are 
offered  in  the  teaching  of  (a)  geography,  (b)  chemistry, 
(c)  history,  (d)  Afrikaans,  (e)  zoology  and  botany,  (f) 
psychology,  (g)  art,  and  (h)  education.  Inspectors 
of  schools  and  principal  teachers  exert  some  influence 
through  inspection  and  supervision.  The  South  African 
Teachers'  Association  and  the  Zuid  Afrikaanse  Onder- 
wijzers  Unie  hold  teachers'  conferences,  and  local 
branches  of  these  bodies  arrange  for  teachers'  meetings. 


46 
;     School  Attendance. 


school  must  be  open  for  not  less  than  5  hours 
tin  every  school  day  for  the  purpose  of  giving  instruction 
to  the  pupils  enrolled;  but  the  Department  may  vary 
the  period  of  daily  attendance  in  special  casesV  It 
also  fixes  the  vacation  period  for  all  schools.  Regular 
school  attendance  is  compulsory  for  all  children  of 
European  parentage  or  extraction,  who  have  completed 
their  seventh  but  not  their  sixteenth  year.  Exemptions 
are  allowed  in  the  case  of  a  child  who  is  under  regular 
and  efficient  instruction  in  any  other  manner;  or  is 
prevented  by  ill-health  or  any  other  unavoidable  cause; 
or  is  engaged  in  a  regular  occupation  and  has  alreadv 
passed  the  sixth  standard.  (237-238  a,  b,) 

When  a  child  lives  more  than  3  miles  by  the  nearest 
road  from  a  school  and  the  parent  or  guardian  is  in  a 
financial  position  to  defray  the  whole  or  a  portion  of 
the  cost  of  the  child's  attendance  at  a  school,  he  is  not 
exempt  from  sending  his  child  to  school;  but  if  the 
parent  is  not  in  a  financial  position  to  defray  the  whole 
of  the  cost  of  transport  or  boarding,  or  any  portion 
thereof  ,  he  is  exempted  until  provision  has  been  made  for 
free  transport  to,  or  boarding  at,  a  school.  Where  a 
child  fails  to  attend  school  and  the  parent  or  guardian 
fails,  after  being  warned,  to  send  his  child  to  school  he 
is  guilty  of  an  offence  and  liable  to  a  penalty  not 
exceeding  ten  pounds.  (238c,  240) 

Except  in  making  up  th,e  necessary  number  of  pupils 
required  for  the  establishment  of  a  primary  school  or  a 
farm  school  no  child  is  admitted  to  a  school  until  hfe 
has  completed  his  sixth  year.  (241) 

Any  person  employing  during  school  hours  a  European 
child,  who  is  still  under  compulsion  to  attend  school, 
is  guilty  of  an  offence  and  liable  to  a  penalty  as  above. 
(242) 

A  board  may  appoint  an  attendance  officer  (at  a  salary 
sanctioned  by  the  Controller)  and  a  parent  or  guardian 
is  required  to  give  to  him  or  to  a  board  any  necessary 
information.  (243,  244) 


47 

H.     Medium    of    Instruction    and    instruction    in    the 
Official  Languages. 

The  medium  of  instruction  of  every  pupil  in  all 
standards  of  any  public  school,  up  to  and  including  the 
4th  standard,  is  the  home  language  of  the  pupil ;  but 
the  parent  of  any  pupil  has  the  right  to  claim  that  the 
other  language  shall  be  gradually  introduced,  and  there- 
after in  accordance  with  the  intelligence  of  the  pupil. 
(294) 

Where  the  medium  of  instruction  of  the  majority  of 
the  pifpils  must  be  exclusively  one  language  and  that  of 
the  minority  the  other  language,  arrangements  are  made 
for  the  efficient  instruction  of  the  minority  (1)  by 
means  of  parallel  classes,  if  the  existing  organisation  of 
the  school  permits;  (2)  by  means  of  parallel  classes  in 
every  case  in  which  the  pupils  forming  the  minority  are 
not  less  than  15;  (3)  by  means  of  teachers  qualified  to 
instruct  in  both  languages.  (294b) 

In  all  the  standards  above  the  4th  provision  is  made 
for  the  instruction  of  the  pupils  through  the  medium  of 
each  language,  and  the  parent  of  a  pupil  may  choose  for 
that  pupil  one  of  the  languages  as  ,the  sole  medium  of 
instruction,  or  both  of  the  languages  as  media  of  instruc- 
tion. Whenever  in  a  public  school  the  one  language  is 
the  medium  of  instruction  in  certain  subjects  and  the 
other  language  the  medium  of  instruction  in  certain 
other  subjects,  the  decision  as  to  the  number  of  subjects 
to  be  taught  through  the  medium  of  each  language  and 
the  selection  of  those  subjects  is  made  by  the  school 
board,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Department.  (295) 

Adequate  provision  is  made  for  the  teaching  of  both 
languages  to  every  pupil  in  every  standard,  and  both 
languages  are  taught  to  every  pupil,  unless  the  parent 
of  a  pupil  otherwise  desires.  Afrikaans  may  be  used 
instead  of  Dutch  (Nederlands)  as  a  subject  of  instruc- 
tion or  as  a  medium  of  instruction.  In  any  case  in 
which  there  is  any  doubt,  owing  to  the  pupil  knowing 
both  languages  equally  well,  as  to  which  of  the  two 
languages  is  to  be  considered  the  home  language  of  the 


48 


pupil,  the  parent's  decision  is  final.  The  inspection  of 
public  schools  and  the  regulations  relative  to  school 
examinations  are  such  as  to  secure  an  equal  standard  of 
proficiency  in  both  languages.  (296-302) 


SUMMARY. 

t 

In  conclusion  the  administration  of  the  schools  of  the 
Cape  Province  may  be  briefly  characterised  in  the  follow 
ing  manner.  It  is  highly  centralised,  the  final  control 
being  in  the  hands  of  the  Administrator,  in  whom  is 
vested  "  the  general  control,  supervision  and  direction  of 
public  education,"  and  who  is  responsible  only  to  the 
Provincial  Council.  The  Superintendent-General  of 
Education,  appointed  by  the  Administrator,  and  subject 
to  his  direction  and  control,  is  the  chief  executive  officer 
for  the  whole  province.  These  two  officials  virtually 
control  the  building  and  construction  of  schools,  the 
training  and  appointment  of  teachers,  the  selection  and 
appointment  of  inspectors  and  Departmental  instructors, 
the  supply  of  school  equipment,  and  the  selection  of  text- 
books. The  course  of  study  also  emanates  from  the  office 
of  the  Department.  This  practically  leaves  to  the  local 
bodies  only  such  relatively  minor  functions  as  adminis- 
tering allotted  funds,  supervising  buildings  and  grounds, 
and  selecting  and  nominating  teachers  for  appointment 
by  the  Department.  In  short  the  local  bodies  are  little 
more  than  the  local  agents  for  the  Department.  As  a 
result  rural  education,  which  more  than  any  other  phase 
of  education  needs  local  adaptation,  local  initiative, 
local  sense  of  responsibility  has  had  added  another  to 
its  many  already  existing  handicaps. 


III.  THE  PRESENT  STATUS  OF  RURAL 
EDUCATION. 

A.     Data  in  connection  with  the  Rural  School. 

The  Department  of  Education  does  not  give  statistics 
separately  for  the  rural  schools.  To  obtain  the  required 
data  it  was  necessary  to  draw  up  a  questionnaire.  This 
was  done  in  connection  with  a  seminar  in  the  Rural 
Department  at  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University, 
New  York.  Six  hundred  copies  of  this  questionnaire 
were  sent  to  South  Africa. 

A  letter,  with  a  franked  and  addressed  envelope  en- 
closed, was  sent  to  the  Secretaries  of  School  Boards, 
other  than  municipal,  explaining  the  purpose  of  this 
study  and  requesting  that  the  addresses  of  rural  teachers 
be  grouped  under  farm  schools,  one-teacher  primary, 
two-teacher  primary,  three  (and  more)  teacher  schools 
and  forwarded  to  Mr.  D.  D.  Malan,  Vice-Principal,  High 
School.  Porterville.  From  among  the  addresses  received 
he  selected  at  random  not  more  than  seven  from  any 
one  school  board  area,  preserving  the  proportion  of  the 
number  of  each  kind  of  school  as  far  as  possible. 

On  the  first  page  of  the  4-page  questionnaire  the  follow- 
ing letter  appeared : 

44  INVESTIGATION   OF  RURAL   EDUCATION   IN 
THE  CAPE   PROVINCE. 

Dear  Colleague, 

Are  you  willing  to  devote  15  or  20  minutes 
of  your  time  to  advance  the  progress  of  the  rural 
school?  If  so,  here  is  an  opportunity. 

Progress  in  education  cannot  be  made  without  a 
knowledge  of  the  exact  facts.  Of  the  facts  required 
very  few  are  available,  hence  the  necessity  for  these 


50 

questions.  We  are  sure  you  will  be  interested  in  the 
results  of  this  study.  With  your  assistance  they  will 
certainly  contribute  to  the  improvement  of  rural 
education.  ; 

There  are  roughly  3,000  rural  teachers  in  the  Cape 
Province  and  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  limit 
the  number  of  questionnaires  to  600  and  to  distribute 
these  as  carefully  as  possible  to  get  a  result  represen= 
tative  of  the  whole  Province.  Furthermore,  it  was 
found  impossible  to  send  out  questionnaires  both  in 
Dutch  and  English,  however  much  we  should  have 
liked  to.  Answers  in  Dutch  will  be  welcome. 

Amongst  the  addresses  available  yours  has  been 
especially  chosen  and  we  hope  you  will  not  disappoint 
us  in  this  matter.  You  have  not  been  asked  to  insert 
your  name  as  it  was  thought  this  may  cause  some 
hesitancy  on  your  part  in  giving  certain  facts 
requested. 

You  are  kindly  requested  to  answer  the  questions 
as  soon  and  as  completely  as  possible.  Many  of  the 
questions  require  simply  "yes"  or  "  no  >?  for  an 
answer  or  a  number.  This  questionnaire  is  ,not  neces= 
sarily  sent  to  the  principal  of  a  school.  It  may 
be  necessary  for  you  to  obtain  data  from  the  principal. 

After  completion  fold  the  paper  and  post  without 
delay,  for  which  we  shall  ever  remain, 
Yours  gratefully, 

J.  R.  MALAN, 

Teachers'  College, 
Columbia    University, 

New  York,  U.S.A. 

P.S. — Please  be  sure  to  return  this,  however  incom* 
pletely  filled  in." 

Pour  hundred  and  sixty  of  these  questionnaires  were 
posted  during  the  first  quarter  of  1921  and  the  remainder 
subsequently.  The  very  satisfactory  response  far  sur- 
passed the  *  best  expectations.  Some  of  the  teachers 
enclosed  a  letter  with  the  questionnaire  containing  sup- 


plementary  information  and  expressing  willingness  to 
give  any  'other  information  that  might  be  required,  Some 
questionnaires  were  returned  blank,  five  of  these  were 
from  schools  that  had  been  closed.  Two  correspondents 
wrote  that  they  were  afraid  to  answer  the  questions  as 
they  had  their  suspicions. 


Questionnaire    on    Rural    Education    in    the    Cape 
Province. 


Name  of  School  Board. ........ 

Name  and  grade  of  School 

Number  of  Teachers  in  School. 


Of  the  375  questionnaires  returned  to  New  York  from 
South  Africa,  350  were  used  for  this  study.  The  replies 
came  from  no  less  than  93  School  Board  areas,  including 
three  from  the  Transkei,  namely,  Matatiele,  Mount  Currie 
and  Umtata.  Only  8  School  Boards  were  not  repre- 
sented, namely,  Albert  Divisional,  Venterstad,  Barkly 
West,  Carnarvon,  Clanwilliain,  De  Aar,  Sterkstroom  and 

Wodehouse  Divisional. 

/ 

Th>e  grade  of  the  school  and  the  number  of  teachers  in 
the  school  of  those  who  reported  were: — 

Farm   School    (1  teacher)  102  29.1% 

Primary   (1  teacher)  160  45.7% 

Primary    (2   teachers)  68  19,4% 

Primary  (3  teachers)  14  4    % 

Primary    (4    teachers)  3)  1  Rc/ 

Secondary    Schools  3| 

From  the  Education  Gazette  Statistical  Number  for 
the  first  quarter  of  1921  the  number  of  rural  schools  were 
(to  the  best  of  our  judgment)  as  follows: — 


52 

Farm    Schools    (1   teacher)  511            22.1% 

Primary    (1    teacher  1438            62.1% 

Primary    (2  teachers)  279           12   % 

Primary    (3    teachers)  53              2.2% 

Primary    (4  teachers)  20  \ 

Primary   (5  teachers)  4  I 

Primary  (6  teachers)  2 

Secondary    Schools  4 

2,311 

There  were  2,801  rural  teachers  and  84.2%  of  them 
were  teaching  in  1-teaeher  schools.  The  percentages  that 
the  different  schools  from  the  questionnaires  form  of  the 
total  number  of  such  schools  were:  Farm  schools  19.9% ; 
Primary  (1  teacher)  11.1%;  Primary  (2  teachers) 
24.4% ;  Primary  (3  teachers)  26.4%  and  Primary  and 
Secondary  (4  and  more  teachers)  20%.  This  distri- 
bution may  be  looked  upon  as  highly  satisfactory  giving 
an  average  of  20.3%  per  group. 

During  this  same  period  there  were  171  primary,  95 
secondary  and  69  high  schools  with  a  total  teaching 
staff  of  3,264  in  the  villages,  towns,  and  cities,  so  that 
the  rural  schools  formed  87.3%  and  the  rural  teachers 
46.1%  of  the  grand  total. 

The  following  are  the  sections,  the  questions,  and  the 
compilations  of  the  data  obtained  from  the  replies:— 


I.     THE  CHILDREN. 

1.     Give     the     number     of     pupils     registered     this 

year:     boys girls. and     number     of 

Standards   in  the  whole   school 

The  total  number  of  boys  exceeded  the  total 
number  of  girls  by  316.  Every  school  had  at  least 
one  boy  on  the  roll.  There  were  4  schools  with 
only  one  boy,  3  schools  with  no  girls,  and  13 
schools  with  a  single  girl  in  attendance. 


53 


Boys — 3,863  from  338  schools.    No  report  from  12  schools 
Girls — 3,547  from  338  schools.    No  report  from  12  schools 

7,410 

The  number  of  Standards  ranged  from  2  to  11  with  a 
median  of  6^  Standards  per  school.  The  prominence 
of  the  Sub-Standards  was  remarkable.  There  were  218 
schools  with  both  Sub-Standards,  39  with  Sub-Standard  B 
only,  34  with  Sub-Standard  A  only,  and  4  had  beginners 
in  addition  to  the  Sub-Standards.  In  the  Sub-Standards 
infant  school  work  is  done.  A  child  is  admitted  to  school 
when  he  has  completed  his  sixth  year. 


350 


Standardsj  2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10     11 

No  Report 

Total          !  5 

29 

53 

58 

64 

55 

74 

9 

1    I     1 

1 

2.     Number  of  pupils  with  home  language: 
Dutch English 

The  Dutch  pupils  formed  87.8%  of  the  total,  the 
English  pupils  11.1%  and  the  foreign  1%.  There  were 
23  schools  with  no  Dutch  pupils  and  128  schools  with  no 
English,,  pupils,  i.e.,  there  were  151  schools  with  children 
all  of  one  home  language  and  196  schools  which  required 
a  dual  medium.  No  report  from  3  schools. 


Dutch             6,791  pupils  from  347   schools         87.8% 

English             863         „         „  „             „             11.1% 

German               77        „       in  4    schools  \       * 

Yiddish                2        „ '       „  1  school    } 

7,733 


% 


From  1    and  2  above  the  total  number  of  pupils  per 
school  was  found  to  distribute  itself  as  follows: 


5  i    10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70  j  80 

to      to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to  j  to 

Pupils 

li  !  20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80  !  90  | 

Schools 

wjtfej 

40 

35 

23 

5 

7 

5  1-'    3  I 

54 


90 

100 

110 

120 

i 

to 

•.<  to 

to 

to 

170 

259 

Pupils 

100 

110 

120 

130 

Schools 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

350 

From  which  the  median  number  of  pupils  per  school  is 
15.8.  As  soon  as  the  number  of  pupils  per  teacher  is 
more  than  30  the  Department  sanctions  the  appointment 
of  an  additional  teacher. 

3.     Has  there  been  a  medical  inspection  of  your  school? 
How  many  found  defective?     How  many  treated? 

Although  medical  inspection  of  school  children  was 
begun  in  May,  1918?  only  6  schools  could  report  that  they 
had  been  visited.  The  country  children  had  to  wait 
While  the  more  fortunately  situated  pupils  in  the  urban 
areas  were  receiving  attention.1 


No 

Yes 

No  report 


342  schools 
6  schools 
2  schools 


98.2% 
1.7% 


In  the  6  schools  81  pupils  were  found  defective  and  of 
these  onlv  8  had  been  treated. 


4.     How  many  of  the  pupils  are  conveyed  to  school? 
How  and  at  whose  expense?     Average  distance? 

The  number  of  pupils  reported  as  being  conveyed  to 
school  was  1,006,  which  is  13%  of  the  higher  total  number 
of  pupils  reported. 

The  method  of  transportation  was: 


By    cart    and    horses 
By  donkey  cart 
By   train 
By  wagon 
On  horseback 
On  donkey 
By   boat 
No  report 


377 

114 

85 

43 

38 

6 

4 

339 


i  See  Reports  of  the  Medical  Inspectors  irf1  Annual  Reports  of 
Sup.-Gen.  of  Ed.  for  1918  and  1919. 


i-Fhe  parents  bore  the  expense  of  transportation 
of  625  pupils,  while  the  Government  made  con- 
tributions in  the  case  of  272  pupils,  which  is 
27%  of  the  total,  number  conveyed  to  school. 
The  average  distance  was  reported  for  928  pupils 
and  ranged  from  1  mile  to  15  miles  with  a 
median  of  2.9  miles.  Several  of  the  teachers 
remarked  .on  the  great  distances  some  of  the 
children  were  walking,  even  from  beyond  the  3- 
mile  radius.  In  connection  with  62  of  the  scholars 
there  were  442  boarders  during  the  first  quarter 
of  1921  as  reported  in  the  Statistical  Number 
of  the  Education  Gazette. 


5.  What  was  the  percentage  attendance  last  quarter? 
What  are  the  chief  reasons  for  absences?  To  what 
extent  does  work  on  the  farm  interfere? 

From  the  percentage  attendance  of  the  276  schools 
which  were  reported  the  average  was  found  to  be  87.5%, 
the  median  90.2%  and  the  mode  was  as  high  as  94%. 
The  range  extended  from  60%  to  100%. 

The  school  year  consists  of  as  nearly  200  schools  days 
as  possible.  During  1921  the  number  of  school  days  were 
198  and  for  1922  the  number  of  school  days  will  be  197. 
The  Statistical  Number  of  the  Education  Gazette  for 
the  1st  quarter  of  1921  reports  on  page  1310  the  follow- 
ing percentage  attendance  for  all  schools: 


Quarter  ending :     June  1920 
Sept.     „ 
Dec.      „ 
Mar.  1921 


85.8  Percentage  Attendance. 
87.3 

85.8 
88.1 


69 

64 

68 

72 

76 

80 

84 

88 

92 

96 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

PerCent 

64 

68 

72 

7§ 

80 

84 

88 

92 

96 

100 

No  Report 

Total 

8 

0 

5 

14 

17 

31 

34 

53 

58 

56 

74 

=  350' 


56 

The  chief  reasons  for  absences  were  reported  as  fol- 
lows : — 

Sickness :    ill  health 160 

Rain ;    inclemency   of  weather 96 

Helping  parents  at  home 59 

River    in    flood 25 

Indifference  of  parents   16 

Ploughing  and   harvesting   seasons 10 

Long  distance  for  walking    10 

Poverty     7 

Transport  difficulties   6 

Families  camping  out.  taking  holidays  or  trekking 5 

Going  to  town,  church,  or  visiting  with  parents 4 

Tending  sheep 4 

Laziness,    unpunctuality     3 

When  grouped  the  personal  element  accounted  for  163, 
the  physical  conditions  for  137,  the  home  conditions  for 
80,  and  the  attitude  of  the  parents  for  25  of  the  reasons 
given. 

The  work  on  the  farm  does  not  interfere  to  any  great 
extent  as  is  shown  by  the  following: 

No     report 115 

No     interference , 104 

Very  little  interference  6& 

Considerable      interference 25 

Seasonal :     Ploughing,  harvesting,  planting. . . . ; 18 

Keeps    children    from    their    studies -11 

Makes  for  unpunctuality 1 

Not  known     ( New  school  or  new  teacher )    13 


II.     THE  TEACHER. 

1.     Were  you   born   in   South   Africa?     What  is  your 
home  language? 

Three  hundred  and  thirty-seven  teachers,  or  96% 
were  native-born  while  only  13  teachers,  or  4%  wrere 
foreign-born. 

The  Dutch  homes  contributed  75.7%  of  the  teachers, 
22%  were  from  English  homes,  while  1.7%  came  from 
bilingual  homes. 


57 


Dutch    (Afrikaans) 

English 

Dutch  and  English 

English   and   German 

German 


265 

77 

6 

1 

1 


75.7% 
22    % 

1.7% 


2.     Were  you  bred  in  town  or  country? 

The  majority  of  the  teachers  were  bred  in  the  country, 
57%  as  against  35.7% ,  who  were  bred  in  town;  while 
7.2%  had  been  bred  in  both  town  and  country,  generally 
having  spent  their  early  youtli  in  the  country.  In  all 
04.2%  had  had  the  experience  of  living  in  the  country 
which  is  considered  an  advantage  for  a  rural  teacher. 


Country 

Town 

Both  town  and  country 

No  report 


198  57    % 

124  35.7% 

25  7.2% 
3 


3.     What   Standard   did   you   attain   to   in   school   and 
where? 

The  Standard  for  admission  to  a  normal  course  up  to 
1021  has  beon  Standard  VII,  and  69.6%  of  the  teachers 
attained  to  this  minimum  requirement,  8%  failed  to 
come  up  to  this  Standard,  while  only  22.3%  attained  to 
a  higher  Standard. 


Standard 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 
32 

IX 

X 

No  Report 

Total 

1 

3 

23 

234 

11 

32 

14 

Per  Cent 

8 

69.6 

22.3 

The  South  African  teacher  generally  goes  a  consider- 
able distance  from  the  home  of  his  or  her  youth  to  teach. 
'This  means  a  proportionate  amount  of  travel  with  its 
accompanying  heavy  expense.  The  replies  to  the  above 
question  were  combined  with  those  giving  the  name  of 
the  School  Board  under  which  the  teacher  was  giving 
instruction.  The  result  was  remarkable.  Only  29.3% 
of  the  teachers  who  reported  were  teaching  in  the  same 
division  (not  School  Board  area)  as  that  in  which  they 


58 

had  liad  their  school  education,  17.5%  were  teaching  in 
an  adjacent  division  and  the  rest  53.1%  were  scattered 
far  and  wide. 


Same  division 
Adjacent  division 
Different  division 
No  report 


84 

56 

170 

30 


29.3% 

17.5% 
53.1% 


4.     What  normal  training  have  you  had? 

The  requirements  far  a  third  class  teacher's  certificate 
called  for  three  years  normal  training  after  passing 
Standard  VII.  A  second  class  teacher's  certificate  could 
be  obtained  by  a  student  who  had  passed  the  Matricula- 
tion examination  after  one  or  two  years  normal  train- 
ing, and  also  by  private  study.  Some  of  the  older 
teachers  had  no  normal  training,  but  had  had  experience 
as  pupil  Teachers  in  schools  where  they  taught  part  of 
the  time.  A  few  teachers  obtained  their  certificate  at 
a  vacation  course.  Some  of  the  uncertificated  teachers 
had  one  or  two  years  of  training,  but  did  not  take  the 
three  years  or  failed  to  obtain  a  certificate  after  three 
years  of  training.  The  data  are  given  in  the  following 
table: 


Normal  training 

None 

1  year 

2  years 

3  years 

4  years 

Total 

57 

24 

33 

206 

1 

Per  Cent 

16.7 

7 

9.6 

60.4 

Normal  training 

Vacation 
course 

Private 
Study 

Pupil 
Teacher 

No  Report 

Total 

3 

10 

7 

9 

Per  Cent 

5.8 

59 

5.  If  you    have   had   work   beyond   Matriculation,   at 
what  institutions  and  how  much? 

Only  13  of  the  teachers,  or  3.7%  were  able  to  report, 
work  beyond   Matriculation.     There  were  23  who  held 
the   Matriculation    Certificate.      Of   these   one   obtained 
his  B.A.    degree  and    five  their  Second    Class  Teacher 
Certificate  '(T2).  ; 

University  College        1  year  5 

„                „                2  years  2 

3  years  (B.A.)     1 

Training  College  (T  2)  5 

The  institutions'  mentioned  were: 

Victoria  College,  Stellenbosch  5 

Normal   College,   Cape  Town  4 

Training  College,  Wellington  2 

Huguenot  College,  Wellington  1 

Training  College,   Stellenbosch  1 

University    of    Stellenbosch  1 

Training  College,  Cape  Town  1 

6.  What  certificates  do  you  hold? 

The  professional  certificates  were  as  follows: 

Third  Class  Teachers'  Certificate  (T  3  Senior)  242  ] 
Primary  Teachers'  Lower  Certificate  13 

Second  Class  Teachers'  Certificate  (T  2)  9 

Associate  College  of  Preceptors  2 

Privy  Council's   Parchment  1  > 

^  Uncertificated  83      23.7% 

The  uncertificated  teachers  formed  23.7%  of  the  total. 
Of  them  4  had  one  year  of  normal  training  (P.T.I)  and 
35  two  years  of  normal  training  (P.T.2).  The  percentage 
of  rural  certificated  teachers  was  76.2.  At  the  same 
time  the  percentage  of  certificated  teachers  in  all  schools 
(European  and  Non-European)  was  79.5.*  Besides  the 


*  Education   Gazette   Statistical   Number   1st   Quarter   1921. 
1310. 


60 


professional  and  academic  certificates  there  were  men- 
tioned a  large  number  of  Departmental  certificates  in 
drawing  (various  kinds) ,  Dutch,  chemistry,  music, 
needlework,  physics,  tonic  solfa,  and  woodwork.  Lan- 
guage certificates  formed  a  particularly  large  part  of  the 
total  display.  They  included  Lagere  Taalbond,  Hogere 
Taalbond,  Hoogste  Taalbond,  Lower  Bilingual,  Higher 
Bilingual,  and  Hoger  Afrikaans. 

7.     Number  of  years  of  experience  in  teaching? 

Seventy-three  of  the  teachers,  or  20.8%  had  less  than 
a  year's  experience,  and  of  these  63,  or  18%  of  the  total, 
were  beginners.  The  teacher  with  the  longest  experience 
had  been  teaching  for  30  years.  The  median  number  of 
years  of  experience  was  3.2.  Taking  the  men  alone,  16 
of  them  had  had  less  than  a  year's  experience  and  their 
median  was  6.6  years. 


0 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

Years 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

Total 

139 

60 

39 

18 

12 

25 

8 

13 

9 

5 

6 

5 

4 

3 

4 

8.     In  how  many  different  schools  have  you  taught? 

A  teacher  may  change  from  one  school  to  another  at 
the  end  of  any  one  quarter,  so  that  she  may  teach  in  as 
many  as  4  schools  in  a  year.  The  following  table  showrs 
the  distribution  of  the  teachers  relative  to  the  number 
of  schools  in  which  they  had  taught: 


Schools 

Beginners 
63 

1 

2 

3 
59 

4 

5 

6 

y  8 

9 
3 

10 

Total 

55 

74 

25 

25 

16 

11  i     5 

3 

Schools 

11 

12      13     15 

19 

32 

Several 

No  Report 

Total 

0 

1       2  i     1 

1 

1 

2 

3 

The  median  number  of  schools  per  teacher  was  2.7  and 
the  range  extended  from  1  to  as  many  as  32  schools. 
Taking  the  median  number  of  years  of  experience  3.2 


into  consideration  it  means  that  the  teacher  has  changed 
his  or  her  location  nearly  every  year.  This  change  was 
not  always  of  their  own  seeking  for  they  had  sometimes 
to  leave,  because  the  school  was  being  closed  on  account 
of  an  insufficient  number  of  pupils  or  because  the  school 
was  being  degraded  from  a  primary  to  a  farm  school* 
The  beginners  were,  with  the  exception  of  3,  all  in  1- 
teacher  schools.  These  3  were  in  2-teacher  schools.  The 
different  classes  of  schools  were  separately  analysed  in 
regard  to  data  given  in  7  and  8  with  the  following  result: 

Median  yrs.  experience.  Median  No.  schools. 
Farm  School  teachers                            1.6  2.2 

Primary  (1-teacher)  teachers  2.5  2.6 

Primary  (2-teacher)   teachers  9.7  3.4 

Primary  (3,  4)  and 

Secondary  teachers  749  3.6 

The  median  teacher  from  the  farm  and  primary  one- 
teacher  school  had  actually  taught  in  more  schools  than 
she  had  years  of  experience.  The  two-teacher  school 
group  were  the  most  stable.  The  farm  school  teacher 
wanted  to  improve  her  position  by  getting  into  a  primary 
one-teacher  school,  and  the  teacher  from  the  one-teacher 
school  changed  to  a  two-,  or  more,  teacher  school. 

9.     Have   you  been   a   teacher   in   a   village,   town    or 
city?     How  long? 

As  has  been  the  experience  elsewhere,  this  study  also 
proves  that  urban  teachers  do  not  move  to  rural  schools 
to  any  large  extent.  The  stream  is  rather  in  the  opposite 
direction.  Only  46  teachers  or  13%,  had  had  teaching 
experience  in  villages,  towns,  or  cities.  Of  these  25  came 
from  villages.  19  from  towns  and  only  2  from  a  city. 

The  length  of  experience  ranged  from  one  quarter  to 
24  years.  The  following  table  shows  the  distribution: 


Years 

0-1 

1-2 

2-3 

3-4 

4-5 

5-6 

6-7 

11 

16 

24 

Total 

16 

8 

5 

5 

3 

2 

4 

1 

1* 

1 

62 


-10.     Are  you  a  man  or  woman?     Married  or  single? 
Age? 

rThe  number  of  men  was  115,  or  32.8%,  which  is  con- 
siderably higher  than  the  percentage  for  all  European 
(white)  schools.  The  Annual  Eeport  for  1919  of  the 
Superintendent-General  gives  the  percentage  of  men  as 
23.2;  and  the  figures  for  the  Third  Quarter  of  1921  as 
published  in  the  Education  Gazette  of  1st  December, 
1921,  page  410,  bring  the  percentage  of  male  teachers 
in  all  schools  under  School  Boards  to  25.7.  The  ex- 
planation for  the  larger  percentage  of  men  obtained  in 
this  study  is  that  in  the  case  of  the  3-,  and  more,  teacher 
schools  it  was  mostly  the  principal,  a  man,  who  filled  in 
the  questionnaire. 


Men 
Women 
No  report 


115 

234 

1 


32.8% 
66.8 


Of  the  72  married  teachers,  20.6%  of  total,  61  were 
nien  and  11  were  women.  In  addition  there  were  3 
widowers.  The  married  men  formed  53%  of  all  the  men. 
This  is  a  favourable  situation  as  it  makes  for  stability 
in  the  rural  teaching  force.  The  women  generally  leave 
the  profession  on  getting  married. 


Single 
Married 
No  report 


276 

72 

2 


79.3% 
20.6% 


The  ages  of  the  teachers  ranged  from  16  to  79  years. 
The  median  age  was  22.3  years.  The  distribution  is 
given  by  the  following  table: 


16 

19 

22 

25 

28 

31 

34 

87 

40 

43 

46 

49 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

Age 

19 

22 

25 

28 

31 

34 

37 

40 

43 

46 

49 

52 

Total 

54 

112 

49 

25 

27 

17 

15 

14 

8 

8 

4 

5 

Age 

56 

59 

60 

79 

No  Report 

Total 

1 

3 

1 

1 

6 

63 


11.     At  what  age  did  YOU  begin  to  teach? 

^  -!fp 

The  youngest  was  14  and  the  oldest  38  years  of  age 
with  the  median  age  of  the  beginner  19.1  years.  Eighty 
per  cent,  of  the  teachers  began  teaching  before  they  were 
21  years  of  age. 


14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

32 

34 

36 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

No  Report 

Age 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

32 

34 

36 

38 

Total 

4 

81 

160 

53 

22 

10 

3 

3 

1 

3 

3 

1 

6 

12.     What  is  your   total  yearly   salary? 
allowance  do  you  receive? 


What  local 


The  range  was  from  £40  to  £525  with  a  median  salary 
of  £143.7.  The  high  salaries  were  drawn  by  the  men 
principals  of  the  large  schools,  the  lowest  salary  by  an 
uncertificated,  inexperienced  teacher.  The  median 
teacher  is  a  woman  teaching  in  a  primary  one-teacher 
school.  Her  beginning  salary  would  have  been  £120  and 
with,  3.2  years  experience  she  would  have  received  three 
annual  increments  of  £7|-  bringing  her  total  salary  up 
to  £142-}.  It  will  be  noted  how  close  this  is  to  the 
median  salary  given  above. 


£40 

80 

120 

160 

200 

240 

280 

320 

360 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

Salary 

80 

120 

160 

200 

240 

280 

320 

360 

400 

Total 

28 

69 

106 

24 

28 

14 

18 

11 

15 

400 

440 

No  Report 

to 

to 

525 

Salary 

440 

480 

Total 

6 

2 

1 

28 

Fifty-five  of  the  teachers,  or  15.7%  reported  the  re- 
ceipt of  a  local  allowance,  though  it  is  quite  likely  that 
some  of  them  might  have  been  receiving  a  war  bonus. 
The  allowance  ranged  from  £4  to  £40  with  a  median  of 
£16. 


64 

13.     In  what  ways  are  you  able  to  improve  yourself 
as  a  teacher? 

The  replies  were  as  follows: 

No     report  Ill 

Private  study;  extending  knowledge  of  subjects 

being    taught    94 

By  wide  reading   55 

None      whatever 31 

Reading  educational  books  and  periodicals 24 

By    experience  24 

Being  member  of  teachers'  association:  attending 

teachers'  meetings  and  teachers'  conference  20 

Giving  up  teaching  and  taking  up  further  studies  14 
From  other  and  more  experienced  teachers ;  hints 

from  other  schools   13 

Attending  meetings,  lectures,  concerts,  etc. ;  being 

member   of   societies    6 

Attending  vacation  courses   6 

Going  to  higher  graded  school  and  having  fewer 

classes   5 

Through  correspondence  lessons  4 

By  travelling  during  the  vacation,  and  visiting 

places    of    interest 4 

By  hints  given  in  the  Education  Gazette 4 

Suggestions  from  the  inspectors 4 

The  large  number  of  those  who  failed  to  report  is 
significant.  Another  outstanding  fact  is  that  the 
teacher's  improvement  is  almost  completely  by  individual 
exertion  and  that  external  agencies  and  organisations 
play  a  very  small  role.  Indeed  the  lack  of  in-service 
training  for  teachers  is  one  of  the  prominent  weaknesses 
of  the  school  system  of  the  Cape  Province. 


III.     BOARDING  PLACE. 

1.     Where  do  you  board? 

The  majority  of  the  teachers,  50.5%,  were  boarding  on 
the  school  farm  with  the  owner  of  the  farm,  or  the 
manager  of  the  school.  Only  22  of  the  teachers,  or  6.4% 
of  those  who  reported,  had  a  residence  provided  or  were 
boarding  in  a  school  house,  and  47,  or  13.7%,  lived  in 
their  own  house  or  rented  a  house. 


65 


The  data  obtained  were  as  follows : 

On  the  school  farm  with  owner  of  farm  or  manager  of  school  173 

In   own   house    35 

On  some  other  farm  near  or  far  from  school 33 

With  a  private  family  locally 30 

Residence  provided ;  school  house 15 

At  home  with  parents    13 

Hired     or     rented     house 12 

Boarding  house  or  hotel 10 

7 

6 

5 

3 

8 


School  boarding  house 

In  a  town,  village  or  station  near 

With  one  of  the  pupils'  parents 

With  the  school  secretary  

No   report    


2.     What  does  board  and  room  cost  you  per  year? 

There  were  98  teachers,  or  31.8%  of  those  who  reported, 
who  received  free  board  and  lodging.  The  median  an- 
nual cost  of  those  who  paid  was  £36.4.  The  range  was 
from  £4  to  £350.  The  distribution  is  given  by  the  fol- 
lowing table: 


£4 

20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

200 

220  I  240 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to  to 

Cost 

Free 

20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

120 

220 

240  260 

350 

No  Report 

Total 

98 

8 

118 

47 

19 

8 

3 

3 

l!   2 

1 

42 

The  median  expense  in  connection  with  board  and 
room  was  nearly  one-fourth  of  the  median  salary  and 
left  the  teacher  with  £107.3  to  use  for  travelling,  clothing, 
professional  upkeep,  and  other  living  expenses. 

3.     Do  you  room  by  yourself? 

There  were  65  of  the  teachers,  or  24.1%  of  those  who 
reported  (neglecting  those  who  were  married)  who 
shared  a  room  with  someone  else.  Their  companion  was 
one  of  the  children  of  the  house  or  another  assistant 
teacher.  Three  reported  that  they  sometimes  had  to 
share  a  room  as  they  were  in  the  guest  room  and  had 
to  give  it  up  for  visitors. 

Yes  204                    75.8%; 

No  65                    24.1% 

Married  72 

No  report  9 


66 


4.     How  many  children  in  the  house? 

The  median  number  of  children  in  the  house  was  4, 
as  was  also  the  mode.  The  higher  totals  given  in  the 
table  below  were  from  boarding  houses. 


Children 

None 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

o 

7 

8 
21 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

Total 

35 

23 

32 

42 

50 

42 

32 

23 

12 

7 

3 

2 

2 

Children 

16 

20 

21 

27 

33  INo  Report 

Total 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1  1        18 

5.     What  bathroom  facilities? 


Only  80  of  the  teachers,  or  22.8%  could  report  a  bath- 
room in  the  house;  121,  or  43%  of  those  who  reported, 
had  no  facilities  and  these  even  included  some  from 
school  boarding  houses;  62  reported  no  bathroom,  but 
the  use  of  a  hand  bath,  portable  bath,  wash  stand,  or 
large  basin  in  the  bedroom.  Open  air  bathing  in  a  river, 
pond,  or  dam  was  mentioned  by  18.  The  remainder,  69. 
failed  to  report  or  had  nothing  to  report.  It  is  evident 
that  modern  conveniences  are  sadly  wanting.  The  poor 
water  supply  in  many  areas  is  responsible  for  this  state 
of  affairs. 

6,     What  facilities  have  you  for  getting  to  the  village 
or  town? 

The  replies  were  summed  up  as  follows: 

By   cart   and   horses 191 

By      train    66 

By  motor  car;  (own  motor  car  6)  ;  post  motor  car 46 

Own  cart  and  horses   22 

Hire  cart  or  cab ;  post  cart ;  own  expense  23 

None 21 

On  horseback      14 

3 

3 

2 

1 

1 


Walk 

By    wagon 

Bicycle      

Motor  cycle  and  sidecar 
Cart  and  donkeys  


67 


Various  distances  were  mentioned  to  show  how 
more  or  less  completely  isolated  some  of  the 
teachers  were.  Some  of  the  longer  distances 
were:  18  miles,  20  miles,  21  miles,  24  miles. 
26  miles,  28  miles,  distance  5  hours  by  cart,  30 
miles,  36  miles,  7  hours  by  cart,  42  miles,  58 
miles,  62  miles,  72  miles,  culminating  in  20  hours 
by  cart  from  the  nearest  village.  Equally  varied 
and  extreme  were  the  opportunities  of  teachers 
for  reaching  towns  and  villages.  Some  of  the 
statements  on  this  point  were:  "Opportunity 
almost  every  day/'  "  Whenever  asked  for ; r> 
"once  a  week  if  desired,"  "farmer  and  neighbours 
always  willing/'  "every  week-end  and  other  occa- 
sions," "  depend  on  charity,"  "  an  *  occasional  lift 
as  a  great  favour/'  "once  a  fortnight/'  "twice  a 
fortnight*"  "  twice  a  quarter  at  most,"  "  once  a 
quarter,"  "only  at  end  of  quarter,"  "twice  per 
year,"  and  "once  a  year." 


IV.     COURSE   OF   STUDY. 


1.     Which  Standards  do  you  teach? 

The  median  number  of  Standards  per  teacher  was*  5  2. 
Nearly  80%  of  the  teachers  had  four  or  more  Standards. 
The  distribution  is  given  by  the  following  table: 


Standards 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

No  Report 

Total 

14 

57 

92 

62 

53 

46 

25 

1 

Per  Cent 

4 

16.2 

26.2 

17.7 

15.1 

13.1 

7.1 

2.     How  many  lessons  do  you  teach  on  the  average 
each  day? 

As  many  as  77  teachers  failed  to  report  on  this  ques- 
tion. Some  gave  a  range  and  others  added  behind  the 
number  the  words  "or  more.^  The  range  ot  the  number 


68 


of  lessons  taught  on  the  average  each  day  was  from  3 
to  30  with  a  median  of  9  lessons.  The  majority  of  the 
teachers  evidently  did  not  include  lessons  which  they 
"  heard."  Some  may  have  stated  the  number  of  lessons 
per  Standard.  The  latest  Primary  School  Course  pub- 
lished in  the  Education  Gazette  of  the  25th  August,  1.921. 
makes  provision  for  the  teaching  of:  Religious  instruc- 
tion; languages,  English  and  Dutch;  writing;  arith- 
metic; geography  and  nature  study;  history;  drawing; 
singing;  manual  training;  physical  exercises  and  hygiene. 
If  half  of  these  are  taught  per  day  that  would  mean  5 
lessons  per  Standard  and  with  6  Standards  the  total 
would  be  30.  In  a  5-hour  day  this  will  give  the  teacher 
on  the  average  10  minutes  per  lesson.  All  the  above 
subjects  are  not  attempted  in  a  rural  one-teacher  school. 
But  even  if  the  teacher  is  able  by  judicious  grouping  and 
correlation  to  give  four  lessons  each  per  day  to  five 
groups  then  the  total  number  would  be  20  lessons  with 
an  average  time  of  15  minutes  each.  Between  these  two 
situations  the  average  teacher  probably  presents  25 
lessons  per  day. 


I  3 

6 

9 

12 

15 

18 

21 

24 

27  |  33 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

No  Report 

Lessons 

6 

9 

12 

15 

18 

21 

24 

27 

30 

36 

Total    |  66 

70 

66 

22 

19 

15 

3 

5 

5 

2 

77 

3.     How  many  reading  books  per  pupil  in  a  Standard: 
.Dutch?       English?       Have     you     supplementary 
readers? 

Of  the  343  teachers  who  reported  on  the  first  part  of 
this  question  285,  or  83%,  had  1  Dutch  and  1  English 
reader  per  pupil.  The  pupils  formerly  used  to  concen- 
trate on  half  of  each  in  order  to  be  able  to  spell  and 
explain  the  meaning  of  every  word  in  that  portion  at 
the  time  of  the  inspection.111  We  do  not  know  to  what 
extent  th,e  practice  has  changed. 

m  The  school  syllabus  for  1899  stated :  "  Pupils  may  take  their 
standards  either  in  English  or  in  Dutch.  If  both  English 
and  Dutch  be  taken,  only  the  half  of  the  English  and  the  half 
of  the  Dutch-Reading  Book  need  be  prepared/'  Great 
Britain,  Education  Department.  Op.  cit.  p.  113,  121. 


Books 

Dl 
El 

D2 

E2 

DOID2 

Ell  El 

Dl 

E2 

D  |(  0  1 
EJ    EO 

DO 

E2 

D3    D2 

Eli  E3 

Dl 
E3 

DO 

EO 

No 
Report 

Total 

285 

16 

11  !  10 

9 

3  !     3 

2 

1        1 

1 

1 

7 

=  Dutch     14  =  English 

The   large   number   178,   or   54.9% ,   who   reported   no 

'  supplementary  readers    shows  how    the    country  school 

child  is  handicapped  in  obtaining  the  necessary  wrider 

reading  for  general  information.     Instead  the  child  is 

bound  down  to  a  few  texts. 


No 178 

Yes 114 

A  few — not  enough   14 

Only  for  some  of  the  classes ...     6 
Lament's     Rural     Readers   ....     5 

Only  library  book?  4 

In    English    only 3 

No    report     26 


54.9% 


A.  Have  you  any  form  of  handwork  for  pupils  to  do 
at  their  seats?  Do  you  teach  domestic  science, 
manual  training,  or  agriculture? 

That  as  many  as  139,  or  43.5%,  of  the  schools  which 
reported,  had  no  handwork  for  the  pupils  to  do  at  their 
seats  must  be  ascribed  to  the  great  lack  of  materials  and 
apparatus  in  the  rural  schools.  The  pupils  certainly 
have  enough  time  for  such  work  where  the  teacher's 
time  is  so*  fully  occupied. 


Yes 
No 
No  report 


180  56.4% 

139  43.5% 

31 


Only  in  5,  or  1.6%,  of  the  schools  which  reported,  was 
anything  done  with  domestic  science.  Cookery  is  men- 
tioned, however,  on  page  118  of  the  Education  Gazette 
of  25th  August,  1921,  as  being  included  in  the  primary 
school  course.  In  the  secondary  school  syllabus  as 
printed  in  the  Education  Gazette  of  February  10,  1921, 
there  are  courses  in  cookery  and  laundry  work  for 
Standard  VII  and  in  cookery,  laundry  work  and  house- 
wiferv  for  Standard  VIII. 


70 

No  298  98.3% 

Yes  5  1.6% 

No  report  52 

The  position  as  regards  manual  training,  which  is 
regarded  as  a  definite  primary  school  subject,  is  even 
worse:  185  schools,  or  61.4%,  reported  no  manual  train- 
ing, while  of  the  116  schools  which  reported  manual 
training  cnly  16  were  able  to  offer  anything  for  the  boys 
in  woodwork  or  cardboard  modelling.  A  number  of  the 
schools  had  asked  for  materials,  etc.,  but  the  Depart- 
ment had  replied :  "  Materials  are  too  expensive  and  un- 
obtainable/' The  girls  were  better  provided  for  in  all 
of  the  110  schools  through  the  existence  of  a  course  in 
needlework  (sewing  and  knitting).  There  was  no  report 
from  49  of  the  schools. 

"Agriculture  is  not  yet  taught  in  any  of  the  secondary 
or  high  schools,  since  the  adequate  teaching  of  the  subject  is 
held  to  be  outside  of  the  scope  of  the  ordinary  secondary 
institution  aiming  at  giving  general  education.  Agricultural 
science  is,  however,  one  of  the  subjects  of  the  rural  secondary 
school  course.  A  scheme  has  been  mooted  for  the  establishment 
o£  a  real  agricultural  high  school ;  but  the  matter  has  not  yet 
emerged  from  the  preliminary  stage."" 

It  was  encouraging  to  find,  however,  that  as  many  as 
34  teachers,  or  9.7%,  reported  that  they  were  doing  some- 
thing for  the  subject  through  their  nature  study »  in  their 
pupils'  readings,  in  connection  with  the  school  garden, 
or  by  the  use  of  rural  readers  and  the  book,  "  Farming 
for  South  African  Schools."  One  teacher  stated  that  he 
gave  some  attention  to  the  subject  in  his  and  the  boys' 
spare  time. 

5.     Are  hot  lunches  served  in  the  school  at  noon  to 
the  children? 

This  question  was  answered  affirmatively  by  as  many 
as  57,  or  16.5%.  This  is  far  better  than  was  expected. 
A  large  number  of  these  were  from  farm  schools  where 
the  children  evidently  had  their  meals  in  the  room  in 

•Letter  from  the  Department  4th  August  1921. 


71 

which  they  received  their  schooling.  In  the  case  of  7 
schools  the  hot  lunch  was  limited  to  some  of  the  pupils. 
While  certain  replies  stated  that  it  was  unnecessary,  that 
the  children  got  home  in  time,  that  there  was  a  boarding 
department  close  to  the  school,  etc.,  others  emphasised, 
how  very  necessary  it  was  for  some  of  the  poor  underfed 
pupils,  what  meagre  cold  lunches  were  brought  to  school, 
and  the  long  distances  the  children  had  to  walk. 

There  is  evidently  great  need  for  improvement  and 
for  a  different  point  of  view  on  this  question.  The  hot 
lunch  should  not  mean  only  charity  for  the  poor,  but 
the  possibility  of  procuring  at  least  a  bowl  of  soup  or  a 
cup  of  cocoa,  especially  in  winter  time,  on  the  part  of 
every  child  who  stays  at  school  during  the  noon  period 
Such  a  meal  may  have  great  educative  value  in  teaching 
the  necessity  of  a  balanced  ration. 

No  288  83.4% 

Yes  57  16.5% 

No   report  o 


V.     THE    SCHOOL. 

1.     Have  you  a   separate   school  building  or   is  your 
classroom  in  a  dwelling  house,  or  in  an  outhouse? 

As  many  as  1G2  teachers,  or  46.2%,  had  no  separate 
school  building.  Two  of  the  teachers  were  teaching 
in  church  buildings,  two  schools  were  described  as 
"  rondavels,"  and  two  as  huts.  One  teacher  was  living 
and  teaching  in  a  crowded  portable  school  building,  where 
they  were  experiencing  the  extremes  of  temperature.  No 
wonder  that  he  should  suggest:  " Uproot  every  portable 
school  building." 

Separate    school    building  188  53.7% 

Classroom  in   or  attached  to 

dwelling  house  90  25.7% 

In  or  attached  to  outhouse  72  20.5% 


72 

2.     Number  of  classrooms? 

The  distribution  was  as  follows:- 


Classrooms 
Total 

1 
263 

2 

3 

18 

4 
2 

1 

6 

7 
1 

64 

1 

As  will  be  noted  there  is  one  one-room  school  more 
than  the  number  of  one-teacher  schools.  This  is  ex- 
plained by  the  fact  that  in  one  case  two  teachers  were 
teaching  in  one  room. 

3.     Who  cleans  the  schoolrooms?     Who  pays  for  the 
cleaning? 

The  replies  to  the  first  part  were  as  follows  :— 

Pupils    129 

Manager,  owner  or  farm  people  129 

Servants   (coloured)    43 

European  man  or   woman 33 

Caretaker 7 

Teacher 6 

No    report     3 

The  replies  to  the  second  part  were:— 

School    board    144 

No  one 77 

Manager,  owner  or  farm  people  64 

Teacher  

Irrigation   board    

No  report 57 

* 

We  were  especially  interested  in  the  part  that  the 
pupils  and  the  teachers  take  in  this  matter.  The  out- 
standing facts  are  that  129  of  the  schools,  or  37.1%,  are 
cleaned  by  the  pupils,  that  6  teachers  clean  their  own 
schools  and  that  7  teachers  pay  for  the  cleaning.  The 
conditions  under  which  the  work  was  being  done  and  the 
merits  of  each  will  have  to  be  enquired  into  before  any 
judgment  can  be  passed.  It  is  generally  agreed  by 


73 

most  rural  educators,  however,  that  the  teacher  should 
not  be  required  to  clean  the  schoolroom,  and  much  less 
to  pay  for  the  cleaning. 

4.  How  often  are  the  floors  scrubbed? 

The  frequency  ranged  from  every  day  (evidently  a 
room  in  the  dwelling  house)  to  once  a  year.  Five  even 
stated  that  the  floors  were  never  scrubbed.  In  one 
case  this  was  qualified  by  the  statement:  "unless  done 
by  teacher  and  pupils/'  in  another  case,  because  the  floor 
was  so  badly  patched.  This  question  further  brought 
out  the  fact  that  there  were  still  28  schools,  8.5%  of 
those  who  reported,  that  had  a  clay  or  earthen  floor. 
Comment  is  unnecessary.  The  floors  of  the  better,  or 
more  hygienic  schoolrooms  were  scrubbed  once  a  week. 
This  may  well  become  the  standard  for  all.  The  second 
largest  practice,  24.3%  of  those  reported,  was  to  scrub 
the  floors  once  a  quarter. 

.Once    a    week    98        29.8% 

Once   a   quarter    ... .  81         24.3% 

Every    fortnight     31         13.6% 

Twice  a  quarter   29        12,7% 

Once  a  month   22          9.2% 

Twice   a    week    17          7.4% 

Twice    a    month    8 

Never     5 

Once  every   six   months    2 

Once    a    year    3 

Every  three  weeks   2 

Three  times  a  week   1 

Every      day    1 

Clay  or  earthen  floor 28       -  8.5% 

No   report    22 

5.  Do  you  have  a  school  garden? 

It  is  always  maintained  that  if  at  all  possible  every 
school  should  have  a  school  garden  to  use  as  a  laboratory. 
These  gardens  often  have  to  be  only  temporary  on  ac- 
count of  the  climatic  conditions.  Moreover,  during 
the  long  vacations  when  there  is  nobody  to  tend  the 
plants  they  are  likely  to  die.  Other  difficulties  are  the 


74 

insufficient  water  supply,  unsuitable  soil,  the  dry  arid 
climate,  unenclosed  grounds,  etc.  The  replies  disclosed 
the  facts  that  283  schools  or  84.2%  of  those  who  reported, 
had  no  school  garden,  and  only  53  schools,  or  15.7%, 
had  a  school  garden. 

It  has  been  found  in  the  U.S.  of  America  that  where 
school  gardens  are  failures,  a  garden  may  be  success- 
fully maintained  at  home  by  the  pupils.0  One  of  the 
teachers  reported  that  the  school  had  window  plants. 
This  example  is  worth,  copying  by  those  who  are  not  in 
a  position  to  do  anything  out  of  doors. 

While  a  school  garden  may  be  a  more  or  less  tem- 
porary affair  another  more  permanent  phase  is  worthy 
of  attention,  namely  the  planting  of  trees,  hedges,  and 
shrubs,  and  the  general  beautifying  of  the  grounds. 
Even  white- washed  stones  along  a  neatly  kept  path  in  the 
Karroo  have  their  aesthetic  value! 

No  283  24.2% 

Yes  53  15.7% 

No    report  14 


6.     Have  you  a  school  playground?    What  playground 
equipment  have  you? 

Generally  the  country  child  is  not  hampered  for  space, 
for  there  is  the  whole  farm  or  the  open  veld  in  addition 
to  the  schoolgrounds  to  play  on.  But  when  it  comes 
to  a  definite  assignment  of  a  piece  of  land  as  a  play- 
ground the  matter  is  quite  different.  When  further  it 
touches  the  matter  of  equipment  for  organised  play,  with 
its  accompanying  benefits,  the  country  school  fails  com- 
pletely. Every  means  should  be  used  to  get  the  indi- 
vidualistic country  children  to  co-operate. 


0  See  Benson  O.  H.  and  Warren,  Gertrude.       Organization  and 
'Results  of  Boys'  and  Girls'  Club  Work.     U.S.  Dept.  of 
Agric.        Circular   66,   1918. 


75 

The  following  tables  speak  for  themselves: — 

Playground:    Yes  220  65.4% 

No  116  34.5% 

No  report  14 

*:quipment:     Nothing  270  92.7% 

Yes  21  7.2% 

No  report  59 

The  21  schools,  or  7.2%,  which  had  equipment  reported 
as  follows: — 

Basketball    8 

Football    8 

Tennis     court  3 

Cricket    2 

Skipping  ropes   2 

One  or  more  balls    2 

Hockey 1 

Horizontal  bars    1 

Swings    1 

7.     What  water  supply  have  you? 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  replies  some  reported  more 
than  one  source  of  supply.  Of  the  sources  only  108,  or 
30.4%,  may  be  said  to  have  been  near  at  hand  and  con- 
venient. In  most  cases  water  had  to  be  carried  to  the 
school  over  a  longer  or  shorter  distance  in  buckets,  cans, 
or  even  in  bottles.  As  many  as  70  of  the  schools,  or 
20%,  had  no  water  supply.  The  tanks  were  not  always 
satisfactory.  Some  were  too  small,  others  were  leaky* 
etc.  The  hygienic  conditions  can  only  be  left  to  the 
imagination ! 

A  tank  or  tanks  94 

None 70 

Borehole  with  windmill    43 

No  report 26 

Spring  or  fountain   24 

River     23 

Well     22 

Pond  or  dam  21 

Open  furrow  or  small  stream 18 

Water  laid  on  in  the  building 14 


76 

8.     Is    your    furniture    and    equipment    satisfactory? 
What  is  wanting? 

The  Education  Department  will  no  doubt  be  gratified 
to  learn  that  as  many  as  188  of  the  teachers,  or  54.8% 
reported  that  their  furniture  and  equipment  (as  far  as 
it  went)  was  satisfactory. 

Yes  1S8  54  8% 

No  155  45.1% 

No   report  7 

By  far  the  greatest  dissatisfaction  was  expressed  in 
connection  with  the  pupils'  desks,  which  were  variously 
described  as:  "long,  cumbrous  desks/'  "obsolete  and 
awkward,"  "out  of  date  and  not  suitable,"  "old-fashioned 
and  shaky/'  "very  rickety/'  "not  suited  to  size  of 
pupils/'  "  very  old  with  wood  splintering  very  badly." 
The  modern  adjustable  desk  is  an  unknown  thing.  Here 
the  Department's  decision  that  "in  private  farm  and 
small  country  primary  schools,  where  rooms  were  usually 
small,  the  most  suitable  desk  would  be  one  provided  with 
a  back  rest,  made  of  wood  throughout,  and  accommodat- 
ing five  or  six  pupils  "p  is  open  to  severe  criticism. 

What  was  lacking  has  been  arranged  in  descending 
order  of  magnitude.  The  following  list  includes  only 
those  articles  mentioned  more  than  five  times : — 

Desks   94 

Cupboard      56 

Maps 55 

Blackboards 53 

Teacher's  desk  or  table 39 

Chairs 26 

Globe     • 24 

Pictures      and     charts    21 

Library  books 18 

Hat,  coat  or  map  rack  or  pegs 17 

Heater   or   oil    stove 13 

Some      class      books 12 


{>  Annual    Report    of    Superintendent-General    of    Education    for 
1919,  p.  4. 


77 


Blincls,  or  screens  for  windows  . . , . 10 

School       clock 10 

ISasel 9 

Washing  stand  with  basin  and  jug  9 


Water  tank 
Alterations 


on     building     for 


ventilation, 
shelter . . 


lighting     and 


Another    room    .-»... 
Drawing     materials 
Tonic  solfa  modulator 


9 

8 
8 
8 
7 


Kindergarten    material 7 


Repairs 
School  bell 


OC11UU1     Ufll \f 

9.     Do  you  have  a  school  library?      How  many  books? 

Two  hundred  and  seventy-eight  teachers,  or  79.4% 
were  able  to  reply  that  they  had  a  school  library,  while 
72,  or  20.5%  had'none.  Of  the  278  ten  did  not  report 
on  the  number  of  books.  For  the  rest  the  range  was 
from  ft  to  900  books  per  library  with  a  median  of  50.7, 
The  number  of  schools  having  less  than  120  books  was 
80.2%.  The  libraries  were  not  always  appropriate.  The 
books  were  sometimes  "  all  too  difficult/7  or  there  were 
"none  in  Dutch,"  or  they  were  "very  old  and  in  poor 
condition.-'  Most  of  the  libraries  have  to  be  built  up 
by  the  efforts  of  teachers  and  pupils. 

The  distribution  was  as  follows: — 


No.  of 
Books 

Below 
30 

30 

to 
60 

60 

to 
90 

90 
to 
120 

120 
to 
150 

150 
to 
180 

180 
to 
210 

210 
to 

240 

240 
to 
270 

Total 

64 

87 

29 

35 

25 

8 

6 

3 

1 

No.  of 
Books 

270 
to 
300 

— 

300 
to 
330 

362 

490 

501 

900 

Total 

4 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

10.     Are    sanitary    closets    provided?      Separate  ones 
for  each  sex? 

The  state  of  affairs  <^s  revealed  by  the  replies  to  these 
questions  is  scandalous,  constituting  a  disgrace  which 
calls  for  immediate  reined v. 


78 


The  replies  to  the  first  part  were: 


Yes 
No 
No  report 


199 

146 

5 


57.6% 
42.3% 


Trhe  replies    of  the  199,  who  reported  the  provision  of 
sanitary  closets,  were  as  follows  for  the  second  part: — 


Yes 

One  only,  or  one  together 

No  report 


99 


That  is,  out  of  350  schools  only  99  or  28,2%  were  able 
to  say  that  they  had  the  minimum  provisions  considered 
absolutely  necessary  for  any  decent  school. 


VI.     INSPECTION. 


1.     Average  .number  of  hours  given  by  inspector  to 
your  school  in  a  year? 


The  time  given  by  the  inspector  to  a  school  extended 
from  one  hour  to  25  hours.  The  median  number  of  hours 
was  4.9.  Those  who  received  more  than  one  school  day, 
5  hours,  from  the  inspector  were  36.1%  of  the  number 
reporting: — 


up 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

Not 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

16 

18 

24 

25 

yet 

Report 

Hours 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

visited 

No 

Total 

9 

65 

120 

31 

24 

2 

3 

1 

1 

1 

63 

30 

79 

2.     What  particular  things  does  the  inspector  do  dur- 
ing such  a  visit? 

The  replies  were  summed  up  as  follows : — 

General  examination  of  the  work  of  the  pupils.  < 
Sets  examinations  in,  or  inspects,  arithmetic, 
spelling,       reading,       composition,       recitation,  , 

translation,      grammar.;      geography,      history,  \, 226 

singing,    physical     exercises,     writing,     mental 

arithmetic,    drawing,   needlework   and    exercise 

books. 

Passes  or  fails  the  pupils. 

Inspects  the  school  buildings,  furniture,  equipment, } 

the    playground,    sanitary    closets    and    boarding  j- 47 

department.  j 

Inspects  the  register^  and   notes   attendance    23 

Gives  advice,  suggestions,  hints  to  teacher   21 

Looks  at  the  time  table  and  questions  the  teacher  regarding 

it . .       9 

Nothing     particular    , 8 

Work  carried  out  hurriedly 5 

Listens   to  lesson   given   by   teacher   and  notes   methods   of 

teaching 5 

Examines  the  schemes  and  records  of  work    . . . 5 

Reports  on  the  work  3 

Finds  fault  and  is  unfriendly 3 

Instructs     the     pupils   . .? 2 

Reads  previous  reports   •  • 1 


3.     What   help  do  you  obtain  from  the  inspector  in 
your  work? 

The  data  obtained  in  reply  to  this  question  have  been 
grouped  in  the  following  table.  The  large  number  not 
reporting  is  significant.  Subtracting  the  63  teachers 
who  had  not  yet  been  visited  still  leaves  65  teachers  who 
failed  to  report  anything,  a  greater  total  than  that  for 
any  of  the  other  items  below.  Before  passing  judg- 
ment it  should  be  known,  however,  that  an  inspector  has 
on  the  average  144  schools,  266  teachers  and  6,836  pupils 
under  his  charged 


Education  Gazette.      Statistical  No.  1st  Quarter  1921,  p.  1,301. 


80 

No      report    128 

Advice  as  to  the  teaching  of  certain  subjects   .       56 

Gave   list    of   suitable   books    43 

None    , ..--... 41 

Useful  hints,  suggestions ;  valuable  advice  29 

Any     help     asked     for ;     every     possible     help ;     willingly 

gives     advice 20 

No  help  unless   asked ;   not  much  chance   of  getting  help 
from  him;    shows  bear-like  temper  during  inspection;   too 

many  inspectors  and  too  few  instructors 18 

Points    out    where    teaching    has    been   faulty    and    makes 
suggestions  for   remedying  same;   criticises  work;   difficult 

points      discussed    15 

Gives     advice     re     grouping     of    standards    for     different 

subjects 14 

Advice  regarding  the  teaching  according  to  the  new  Syllabus ; 

advice  about  records  and  schemes  of  work  for  year 14 

Advice  in  regard  to  the  classification  of  children 5 

The  way  he  examines  the  pupils  is  a  great  help ;  sometimes, 
but  very  occasionally,  he  may  give  a  model  lesson;  short 

demonstration     lesson 5 

Reports  sometimes  help  to  see  weak  points  in  instruction; 
matters  reported  to  the  Education  Department  are  as  a  rule 

considered  of  sufficient  importance  to  induce  remedies 4 

A  teachers'  meeting  held  2 

Inspector  offered  to  assist  us  if  we  should  write  to  him ....        1 


4.     Do     any     Departmental     Instructors*     visit     your 
school?      How  often  and  how  long? 


Only  34  teachers,  or  10.4%  of  those  who  answered  this 
question,  could  report  the  visit  of  an  instructor.  The 
instructors  that  were  mentioned  were:  needlework  10, 
singing  4,  drawing  3,  woodwork  3,  and  kindergarten  1. 

No  292  89.5% 

Y.es  34  10.4% 

No  report  24 


*The  Instructors  have  charge  of  the  teaching  of  one  of  the  special 
subjects. 


81 


The  replies  to  the  second  part  show  how  much  can  be 
expected  from  an  instructor  who  comes  so  infrequently 
and  for  so  short  a  time. 


Once    every    year 
Once  every  2  or  3  years 
Once  every  3  or  4  years 
Once  every  5  years 
Once  every  10  years 


17 
8 
2 

1 


For  10  minutes  1 

For  \  hour  1 

For  £  hour  4 

For  *  hour  to  1  hour  7 

About  1§  hours  5 

For  5  hours  1 


VII.     THE  COMMUNITY. 


1.     Name   helpful   organisations   in  your  community? 

The  following  table  gives  the  organisations  named 
in  their  numerical  order.  The  church,  and  the 
many  branches  of  its  activity,  was  by  far  the  most 
helpful  organisation. 


Church    

Debating   Society   and  Christelike  Jongelieden   Vereniging 

None      

No      report 

Prayer    meetings     

Farmers'      Associations 

Sunday   School  and  Catechisation  Class    

Teachers'      Associations       

Rifle     Association     v 

Club   for   destroying   vermin    v 

Christian   Students  or  Endeavour   Association    

Afrikaanse     Christelike     Vrouwen     Vereniging   

Kinder    Zending    Krans    

Sports     Committee     

Temperance       Society       

Afiikaanse     Dramatiese     Vereniging 


145 

107 

97 

42 

20 

12 

9 

5 

4 

4 

3 

2 

2 

1. 

1 

1 


82 

2.  Do    you    take    an    active    part    in  any    of    these? 
Which? 

One  hundred  and  seventy  teachers,  or  57.4%  of  those 
who  reported,  were  able  to  take  an  active  part  in  one  or 
more  of  the  above  organisations.  Adding  together  those 
who  failed  to  report  and  those  who  answered  "  No,"  and 
subtracting  the  number  of  teachers  who  had  no  organisa- 
tions in  their  community,  leaves  83  teachers,  who  might 
liave  taken  part  in  some  organisation  but  who  for  one 
reason  or  another  did  not. 

Yes  170  57.4% 

No  126 

No   report  54 

The  activities  of  the  church  were  very  well  supported 
by  the  teachers.  Two  of  the  teachers  were  holding  church 
services  regularly,  and  two  were  organists.  The  data 
obtained  for  the  second  inquiry  are  shown  below: 

Debating   Society  and  Christelike  Jongelieden  Vereniging  95 

Church 88 

Prayer     Meetings     ••.... 18 

Sunday  School  and  Catechisation  Class  16 

Teachers'     Associations      . . . 5 

Rifle    Association     3 

Farmers'     Associations     3 

Christian    Students    or    Endeavour    Association 3 

Tennis     Club 

Kinder   Zending    Krans •  • 2 

Temperance     Society     

Club   for   destroying   vermin    1 

Afrikaanse    Dramatiese    Vereniging    1 

3.  Is    the    school    used    for    community    meetings? 
Which? 

The  rural  school  building  is  often  the  only  available 
and  suitable  place  for  meetings  and  social  gatherings. 
Much  more  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  the  use  of  the 
schools  as  community  centres.  Only  121,  or  36.3%  of 
those  who  reported,  said  that  the  school  was  used  for 
community  meetings. 

No  212  63.3% 

Yes  121  36.3% 

No  report  17 


S3 

The  schools  were  used  in  connection  with  the  follow- 
ing:— 

Church     Services     55 

Debating   Society   and  Christelike  Jongelieden   Vereniging  47 

Prayer    Meetings    20 

Sunday  School  and  Catechism  Class   19 

Public     Meetings      9 

School    Committee    Meetings 7 

Bazaar      4 

Farmers'     Associations 3 

Christian     Endeavour     Association     2 

Kinder  Zending  Krans 2 

Teachers'    Association     2 

Afrikaanse  Christelike  Vrouwen  Vereniging 1 

Diggers     Union     1 

Sports     Committee 1 

Concerts       1 

4.     Do  you  have  school  entertainments?     How  many 
in  a  year? 

Of  those  who  reported  only  93,  or  28%  had  had 
school  entertainments.  Thirteen  teachers  intended  to 
have  one  later.  School  entertainments  have  been  valu- 
able means  of  arousing  the  interests  of  the  parents  and 
of  the  community  in  the  school,  of  socialising  the  com- 
munity, of  raising  funds,  and,  best  of  all,  of  educating 
the  children. 

No  226  68% 

Yes  93  28% 

Not  yet,  intend  to  later             13  3.9% 

No  report  18 

The  replies  from  the  93  schools  showed  that  the  large 
majority  had  one  entertainment  a  year.  The  greatest 
frequency  was  four  entertainments  a  year  reported  by  2 
of  the  schools. 

One  a  year   59 

Two  a   year 16 

Occasionally,  rarely,  very  seldom  7 

One  every  two  years 3 

Three    a    year 2 

One  every  three  years  2 

Four  a  year  2 

Two  in  three  years   1 

No     report 1 


84 


5.     Is  the  community  rich   or  poor? 

It  was  felt  that  the  answering  of  this  question  would 
call  for  various  and  uncertain  judgments.  On  the  other 
hand  teachers  are  certainly  capable  of  passing  a  good 
rough  general  judgment  and  that  was  all  that  was  de- 
sired. The  majority  of  the  schools,  54.5%  were  in  poor 
communities.  The  less  closely  settled  sections  of  a  coun- 
try are  generally  the  poorer  sections.  Those  that  were 
described  as  being  rich,  to  different  degrees,  formed 
22.7%  and  the  remaining  22.7%  were  described  as  mixed, 
middling,  medium  and  in-between.  Seventy-seven  of 
the  teachers  did  not  report. 

5.     From  how  many  farms  do  the  children  come? 

The  number  of  farms  that  the  children  came  from 
ranged  from  1  to  40  with  a  median  of  3.4.  The  distribu- 
tion was  as  follows: — 


Farms    [  1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

n 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

17|19 

2030 

40 

Total      141 

52 

53 

50 

28 

25 

14 

Q 

6 

4 

7 

2 

1 

4 

o 

l!  2 

2 

Railway    cottages    (railway    station)  : 

Labour  colony   (irrigation  settlement)  7 

No  report  22 

7.  Is  there  a  community  spirit  noticeable?  Are 
there  occasions  on  which  the  whole  community 
meets? 

A  large  number  of  teachers,  129,  or  36.8%  did 
not  answer  the  first  question.  There  were  123, 
or  35.1%,  who  answered,  "  yes,"  but  of  these  8 
qualified  their  statement  by  adding  "very  poor," 
or  "not  much."  There  was  no  community  spirit 
noticeable  in  98,  or  28%,  of  the  school  situations. 
An  equal  number,  142  stated  that  there  were,  or 
were  not,  occasions  on  which  the  community  met. 
while  G6  failed  to  report.  The  meetings  reported 
were  in  connection  with  church  services,  for  holy 
communion,  at  bazaars,  prayer  meetings^  sports 
meetings,  debating  society  meetings  and  christelike 
jougelieden  vereniging,  political  meetings,  concerts. 
Christmas  celebrations,  picnics,  parties  and  socials. 


VIII.     IN  CONCLUSION. 

1.  What  are  the  outstanding  problems  and  difficulties 
that  you  experience  in  connection  with  the  rural 
school? 

The  replies  were  grouped  as  follows  :— 

A.  The    children. 

(a)  Limited  general  knowledge;  lack  of  social 
contacts   and    experience    48 

(b)  Absences,   irregular  attendance    48 

(c)  Lack    of    competition,    ambition,    interest, 
recreation    and    games    35 

(d)  Transportation    of   pupils;    great    distance 
children  have  to  walk  or  ride 30 

(e)  'Children  ill-fed   or   underfed;   no  medical 
inspection  or  attention IS 

B.  The  teacher. 

(a)  Isolation  and  poor  environment 39 

(b)  Unsatisfactory     boarding  ...'...„ 37 

(c)  Teacher's  transportation  difficulties   17 

(d)  Insufficient    salary;    poor    teachers;    short 

life  of  school ;  teacher  changes   17 

C.  Course  of  Study. 

(a)  Too  many  classes  and  too  much  work....  127 

( b )  Making  out  a  workable  time-table ;  teaching 
according   to   new   syllabus    23 

( c )  Language  difficulties    19 

(d)  Inspection   system    10 

D.  The  School. 

(a)  Insufficient    and    unsatisfactory    furniture 

and    equipment    73 

(b)  Unsuitable    school    building    42 

(c)  Delay  in  forwarding  and  trouble  in  getting 
school   requisites    28 

E.  The  Community. 

(a)  Indifference,  ignorance    and  opposition    of 
parents 61 

(b)  Poor   home  environment;   poverty    48 

(c)  School    committee    not    active    enough    in 
backing   the   teacher    19 

(d)  No  community  spirit  or  helpful   organisa- 
tions             7 


86 

2.  What  suggestions  would  you  offer  for  the  better- 
ment of  rural  education  and  the  lot  of  the  rural 
teacher? 

The  suggestions  were  grouped  under  the  same  head- 
ings as  those  above  with  the  following  results: — 

A.  The  Children. 

(a)  Better  conveyance  -and  aid  to  pupils  whose 
homes  are  distant   25 

(b)  Medical     inspection;      hot     lunch;      more 
boarding  schools   20 

(c)  Trips  and  excursions  for  pupils,  especially 

to  town    15 

(d)  Better  enforcement  of  compulsory  regula- 
tions ;  change  of  vacations  12 

B.  The  Teacher. 

(a)  Proper   boarding   accommodation    36 

(b)  Higher  salary    31 

(c)  Teacher's  improvement     28 

(d)  Improved    travelling    facilities    21 

C.  Course  of  Study. 

(a)  More 'help  and  assistance  should  be  provided  64 

(b)  Improved   inspection   system    21 

(c)  Drafting  of  a  simpler  curriculum  for  the 
one-teacher   school    17 

(d)  Language  and  medium  suggestions   7 

D.  The   School. 

(a)  Better  school  buildings,  etc.,  as  result  of 
centralisation   and  amalgamation  of  rural 

schools    100 

(b)  More  and  better  equipment  to  overcome 
local  defects   73 

(c)   Better  and  more  prompt  execution  of  re- 
quisitions          7 

E.  The  Community. 

(a)  More   sympathy  with,   and  better   support 
for,  the  rural  teacher  by  the  Education  De- 
partment,  School  Board   and  School  Com- 
mittee           29 

(b)  More   interest    and   co-operation    (less   in- 
terference)   of  parents    21 

(c)  Better   rural   social   organisation    0 


87 


SUMMARY. 


The  writer  wishes  to  acknowledge  the  many  limita- 
tions of  the  questionnaire  method  in  general  and  of  his 
questionnaire  in  particular.  However,  by  interpreting 
the  study  in  terms  of  medians,  averages  and  percentages 
the  following  picture  may  be  sketched,  fairly  typical  of 
rural  school  conditions  in  the  Cape  Province  during 
the  first  quarter  of  the  year  1921. 

The  teacher  was  a  young  woman,  22  years  of  age, 
who  had  been  born  in  South  Africa  and  came  from  a 
Dutch  home  in  the  country.  She  had  completed  her 
school  education  by  passing  Standard  VII,  after  which 
she  had  three  years  of  normal  training,  the  last  of  which* 
at  least,  was  spent  in  a  normal  school.  She  held  the 
Third  Class  Teachers'  Certificate  and  in  addition  a  num- 
ber of  Departmental  and  language  certificates.  She 
began  teaching  when  she  was  nineteen  years  old  and  had 
been  teaching  for  three  years.  This  was  the  third 
school  in  which  she  had  taught.  Her  previous  experience 
had  been  gained  in  a  farm  school  or  a  one-teacher  rural 
school.  She  was  a  considerable  distance  from  her 
parental  home,  which  is  located  in  another  district.  Her 
yearly  salary  was  £143.7  and  sh,e  received  no  local 
allowance.  Her  growth  and  development  as  a  teacher 
was  limited  to  what  she  was  able  to  attain  by  individual 
effort  and  private  study. 

She  roomed  by  herself  in  the  house  of  the  owner  of 
the  school  farm.  Board  and  room  cost  her  £36.4 
There  were  four  children  in  the  house,  which  had  no 
bathroom.  She  was  able  to  get  to  the  nearest  town  or 
village  by  cart  and  horses  only  at  intervals. 

The  school  in  which  she  taught  was  a  primary  one- 
teacher  school  with  15  or  16  pupils,  8  boys  and  7  girls,  or 
8  boys  and  8  girls.  Only  one  or  two  of  the  pupils  came 
from  English-speaking  homes.  There  had  been  no  medi- 


. 

cal  inspection.  One  or  two  of  the  pupils  were  conveyed 
to  school  and  at  their  parents'  own  expense.  The  per- 
centage of  attendance  for  the  last  quarter  wras  87.5. 
Sickness  and  the  inclemency  of  the  weather  were  the 
chief  reasons  for  absences.  The  work  on  the  farm  did 
not  interfere  to  any  great  extent. 

The  15  or  16  pupils  were  distributed  through  5  or  6 
Standards  and  this  made  it  necessary  for  the  teacher  to 
teach  and  hear  about  25  lessons  per  day.  The  pupils 
each  had  one  Dutch  and  one  English  reading  book.  There 
were  no  supplementary  readers.  The  girls  were  having 
drill  in  needlework,  but  the  boys  had  no  manual  training. 
No  hot  lunch  was  served  in  the  school  at  noon. 

The  teacher  taught  in  a  school  building  standing  by 
itself  and  having  just  one  classroom.  The  school  room 
was  cleaned  by  the  pupils  or  by  the  people  on  the  farm. 
The  floors  were  scrubbed  about  once  a  quarter.  There 
was  no  school  garden.  There  was  a  playground,  but  it 
had  no  equipment.  The  water  supply  was  unsatisfactory. 
Water  had  to  be  carried  to  the  school.  The  furniture 
and  equipment  as  far  as  it  went  was  satisfactory,  but 
there  was  not  enough  of  it.  The  school  had  a  library 
containing  fifty  books.  The  hygienic  and  sanitary 
arrangements  were  defective. 

The  inspector  visited  the  school  once  a  year  and  stayed 
for  4.9  hours.  During  that  time  he  examined  the  pupils 
as  a  result  of  which  they  passed  or  failed  their  Standard. 
The  inspector  was  not  able  to  help  the  teacher  much  in 
her  work,  neither  did  any  of  the  Departmental  Instruc- 
tors visit  the  school. 

By  far  the  most  helpful  organisation  in  the  community 
was  the  church.  The  teacher  was  able  to  take  an  active 
part  in  one  or  another  organisation,  but  the  school  was 
not  being  used  as  a  community  centre.  Even  the  school 
entertainment  for  arousing  the  interest  of  the  community 
was  wranting.  The  children  came  from  three  or  four 
farms.  The  community  on  the  whole  was  poor  and  still 
more  poorly  organised  for  combined  effort. 


89 


B.     THE  WORK  OF  OTHER  AGENCIES. 

In  addition  to  the  rural  school  the  following  agencies 
contribute  to  the  education  of  the  farmers : — 

The  Agricultural  Department  is  under  the  Union 
Government.  There  is  a  Minister  of  Agriculture  in  the 
cabinet  of  the  Prime  Minister.  The  chief  divisions  of 
the  Department  are  concerned  with  veterinary  research, 
sheep  and  wool,  entomology,  botany  and  plant  pathology, 
tobacco,  cotton,  dairying,  horticulture,  viticulture,  guano 
islands,  chemistry,  and  agricultural  education. 

Two  Agricultural  Schools  and  Experimental  Stations 
are  maintained  by  the  Government  in  the  Cape  Province, 
one  at  Elsenburg,  near  Mulder's  Vlei,  about  30  miles 
from  Cape  Town  (accommodation  for  40  students)  and 
the  other  at  Grootfontein,  just  outside  the  town  of 
Middelburg  (accommodation  for  80  students). 

The  Elsenburg  farm  contains  approximately  1,700 
acres.  The  special  features  of  this  institution  are  horti- 
culture, viticulture  and  winemaking,  cereal,  tobacco 
(Turkish),  poultry  and  dairying.  The  school  serves 
the  coastal  districts  from  Namaqualand  to  Knysna,  and 
the  districts  of  Ceres,  Worcester,  Paarl,  Tulbagh  and 
Montagu. 

The  Grootfontein  farm  is  very  extensive  (about 
25,000  acres)  and  typical  of  a  large  area  of  the  Karroo 
and  midlands  of  the  Cape  Province.  The  special  fea- 
tures here  are  agriculture  (chiefly  irrigation),  ostriches, 
Merino  sheep,  Angora  goats,  poultry  and  dairying.  The 
area  of  operation  embraces  the  rest  of  the  Cape  Province 
excluding  Griqualand  East  and  the  area  served  by  Elsen- 
burg. 

The  following  courses  are  given : — 

(1)  A  one  year  course  in  general  Agriculture. 

(2)  A  two  years  course  in  Agriculture  and  Agricultural 
Science,  qualifying  for  a  diploma  in  Agriculture. 


90 

(3)  A  three  year  course  for  an  honours  diploma  for  ad- 
vanced study  in  certain  subjects. 

(4)  Special   courses   of    varying    duration    are    offered 
appropriate  to  the  more  specialized  farming  pursuits 
in  each  area. 

(5)  Short  vacation  courses  are  also  provided  for  farmers 
and  their  wives  and  daughters,  rural  school  teachers, 
and  others  interested  in  agricultural  pursuits. 

Extension  work  is  carried  on  by  means  of  external 
lectures  and  demonstrations,  by  co-operative  experi- 
mental work  with  farmers,  by  advisory  services  through 
correspondence  and  visits  to  farms,  orchards,  poultry 
yards,  etc.,  and  by  the  publication  of  numerous  articles 
and  bulletins. 

Further  important  functions  of  the  schools  consist  in 
the  carrying  out  of  experimental  and  investigational 
work  and  the  breeding  of  pedigree  live  stock  for  sale  to 
farmers. 

The  following  data  were  obtained  from  the  Principal 
of  the  Grootfontein  School  of  Agriculture:— 

"  Students  are  admitted  to  the  Diploma  Course  only  at  the 
commencement  of  each  school  year,  i.e.  in  January.  The 
minimum  age  of  entry  is  16  years.  Candidates  must  have  passed 
the  Junior  Certificate  examination  or  its  equivalent,  and  must 
produce  satisfactory  references  as  to  character  and  evidence 
of  good  health.  Preference  will  be  given  to  those  with  a  higher 
standard  of  education. 

An  inclusive  fee  of  £50  per  annum  covers  board,  laundry, 
tuition  and  ordinary  medical  attendance  at  the  institution.  A 
few  assistance  bursaries  (value  £50  and  £25  per  annum)  may 
be  awarded  each  year  to  the  sons  of  parents  who  are  not  in 
a  position  to  pay  the  fees  or  are  able  to  pay  a  portion  of  the 
fees  only. 

The  total  enrolment — owing  to  lack  of  further  accommoda- 
tion— was  82  in  1921.  The  percentage  of  matriculated  students 
was  approximately  80%,  and  about  80%  of  the  men  came  from 
farms.  The  students  remain  for  the  full  course,  whatever  the 
course  may  be.  They  are  not  taken  for  a  portion  of  the  course. 
After  leaving  they  are  engaged  as  farmers,  managers,  dairy 
factory  managers,  sheep  experts,  etc.,  according  to  their  train- 
ing. Less  than  a  quarter  of  1%  go  on  to  work  other  than  that 
having  a  bearing  on  farming. 


91 

Half  the  student's  time  in  the  Two  Years  Course  is  devoted 
to  class  work  and  the  other  half  to  practical  work.  This 
practical  work  covers  field  operations,  work  in  the  engineers' 
shops,  practical  work  at  dairying,  stock  judging,  etc. 

The  principal  agricultural  shows  are  visited  to  assist  in  stock 
judging,  judging  of  agricultural  produce,  etc.,  and  also  for  the 
purpose  of  staging  educational  agricultural  exhibits  from  the 
institution. 

Lectures  are  delivered  at  agricultural  shows  and  before 
farmers'  association  meetings,  and  on  many  other  occasions. 

All  results  of  work  performed,  whether  experimental,  in- 
vestigational  or  research,  are  published  either  through  the  press, 
or  through  the  Agricultural  Journal,  and  reprints  are  obtained/* 

Under  normal  conditions  a  certain  number  of  scholar- 
ships are  offered  annually  for  competition  throughout  the 
Union  for  special  study  oversea  in  stock  and  agriculture, 
or  in  some  branch  of  agricultural  science.  These 
scholarships  are  for  2  to  4  years  and  are  granted  to 
students  who  have  completed  a  course  at  one  of  the 
schools  of  agriculture,  or  to  others  who  are  graduates  in 
science  of  a  University  in  South  Africa,  or  otherwise 
worthy  of  a  scholarship.  The  holder  is  required  on  his 
return  to  enter  the  government  service  for  three  years. 

Since  1918  a  faculty  of  agriculture  has  been  estab- 
lished at  the  University  of  Stellertbosch  and  the  success 
ful  completion  of  a  four-year  course  here  leads  to  the 
degree  of  B.  Sc.  in  agriculture.  In  addition  there  is 
also  a  two-year  course  for  intending  farmers  to  which 
students  are  admitted  who  in  the  opinion  of  the  Senate 
have  attained  the  standard  of  the  Matriculation  or 
Senior  Certificate  examination. 


92 


IV.     COMPARATIVE   STUDIES  OR  RURAL 
EDUCATION   IN   DIFFERENT    COUNTRIES. 

The  phases  of  rural  education  treated  under  the 
various  heads  in  the  following  pages  include  only  those 
considered  suggestive.  There  is  no  pretence,  whatever, 
at  an  exhaustive  or  complete  study  of  any  topic  discussed. 

1 .       AD  MINI  STR  AT  ION. 

For  comparison  the  school  system  of  the  Cape  Province 
is  diagrammatically  compared  with  that  of  a  typically 
progressive  state  of  the  United  States.  In  their  duties 
the  officials  are  only  roughly  equivalent. 

Cape  Province.  State  of  the  United  States. 

Governor-General  in  Council  Governor  of  State 

I  I 

Administrator  State  Board  of  Education 

5  to  7  members 

I  I 

Supt.-General  of  Education  State  Supt.  of  Education 

I  I 

Department  of  Education  State  Dept.  of  Education 

I  I 

Division  County 

I  I 

Divisional  School  Board  County  Board  of  Education 

I  I 

Inspector  of  Schools  County  Supt.  of  Schools 

(State  Official)  (Local  Official) 

I  I 

Supervisors 

I  I 
School  Committee         School  Trustees  or  Directors 

I  I 

Teachers  Teachers 

I  I 

Pupils  Pupils 


93 

The  outstanding  difference  between  the  two  systems 
is  that  the  Cape  system  is  highly  centralised  while  a 
large  amount  of  local  control  is  exercised  in  the 
States.  The  increased  financial  assistance  given  by  the 
Provincial  Council  has  been  accompanied  by  increased 
government  control  and  centralised  authority  in  educa- 
tional matters.  In  the  United  States  the  state  govern- 
ments contribute  only  15%  while  84%  of  the  expense 
of  educating  the  children  of  the  state  is  borne  b}^  the 
local  communities,  and  the  bulk  of  this  local  burden 
is  carried  by  the  small  school  districts/  There  is  a 
movement,  however,  to  abandon  the  small  district  and 
employ  the  county  and  state  as  taxing  units.  Federal 
aid  also  is  generally  advocated  by  the  leaders  of  educa- 
tion. 

Great  freedom  in  local  control  of  schools  has  in  the 
past  been  allowed  in  the  United  States  with  disastrous 
results  in  many  cases  as  exemplified  by  a  short  school 
year,  underpaid  teachers,  a  meagre  course  of  study  and 
other  shortcomings.  The  best  educational  opinion  is  in 
favour  of  greater  centralised  control.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  while  the  movement  is  toward  greater  cen- 
tralisation in  the  United  States,  other  highly  centralised 
countries*  e.g.  France,  are  trying  to  get  more  local 
control.  "The  chief  administrative  change  that  is  con- 
sidered desirable  (in  France)  is  one  that  will  abolish 
the  extreme  form  of  centralization  that  characterizes 
the  system.  If  the  needs  of  the  nation  and  the  different 
localities  are  to  be  met,  some  flexibility  must  be  intro- 
duced in  educational  administration."8  Thus  are  the 
different  countries  trying  to  maintain  the  balance  be- 
tween the  central  and  local  authorities  in  educational 
affairs. 

2.     INSPECTION  AND  SUPERVISION, 

The  aim  of  school  inspection  is  to  judge  the  effective- 
ness of  school  work.  It  is  used  chiefly  as  a  means  of 

r  Journal  of  Rural  Education,  Dec.  1921,  p.  145. 
8  Kandel,  I.  L.  Education  in  France  in  1916-1918,  Bulletin  1919, 
No.  43  Bureau  of  Ed.,  p.  5. 


94 

standardising    the    school    activities    within    a    school 
system.     Inspectors  are  generally  state  officials. 

The  duties  of  inspectors  are  much  the  same  in  the 
different  countries.  In  addition  to  visiting  the  schools 
in  their  circuits  once,  twice  or  oftener  every  year  and 
examining  the  work,  they  have  varying  responsibilities 
of  an  administrative  nature  to  perform.  As  a  rule  they 
are  appointed  from  amongst  the  more  experienced 
teachers.  In  France  it  is  necessary  for  the  teachers  to 
pass  a  special  qualifying  examination  in  order  to  become 
eligible. 

"  In  Ontario,  Canada,  the  regulations  require  candidates  for 
positions  as  inspectors  to  be  holders  of  or  entitled  to,  the  depart- 
mental certificate  as  inspector  of  public  schools.  To  secure  this 
the  candidate  at  present  has  to  hold  an  honour  degree  from  a 
recognised  university,  must  have  had  seven  years'  successful 
experience  in  teaching,  five  of  which  shall  have  been  in  public 
schools,  and  is  required  to  have  passed  the  examination  in  this 
special  course  for  inspectors  provided  by  the  faculties  of 
Education."  t 

In  Sweden  "a  committee  of  the  Eiksdag  reached  the 
conclusion  that  the  work  of  the  inspectors  was  that  of 
specialists  and  that  they  should  be  appointed  and 
directed  by  regulations  with  this  character  of  their 
duties  in  view."u 

In  the  United  States  the  broader  function  of  super- 
vision has  been  recognised  as  of  greater  importance  than 
inspection.  The  main  purposes  of  supervision  are  the 
development  of  the  teachers  and  the  improvement  of  in- 
struction. Where  the  inspector  passes  upon  the  worth 
and  efficiency  of  a  school  the  supervisor  must  do  this 
and  more ;  he  must  raise  the  worth  and  increase  the  effi- 
ciency. The  inspector  inspects  the  school,  criticises  the 
teacher,  and  leaves  the  responsibility  for  improvement 
on  the  teacher.  Supervision,  on  the  other  hand,  is  for 


*  Foght,  H.  W.     The  School  System  of  Ontario.     Bulletin  1915. 

No.  32  U.S.  Bureau  of  Education,  p.  22. 

*  Pearson,  P.  H.     Schools  of  Scandinavia,  Finland  and  Holland. 

U.S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  1919,  No.  29,  p.  25. 


95 

the  improvement  of  the  teacher  with  the  responsibility 
resting  on  the  supervisor.  While  the  inspection  is  im- 
personal and  non-constructive,  supervision  is  personal 
and  constructive/ 

Supervision  is  a  vastly  more  difficult  matter  than  in- 
spection as  it  involves  (1)  the  diagnosis  of  instruction, 
(2)  the  planning  for  its  improvement,  and  (3)  the  pre- 
sentation of  these  plans  in  a  manner  forcible  enough  to 
affect  the  teacher's  conduct.  Each  of  these  call  for  a 
high  order  of  ability  and  extensive  training. 

The  urgent  need  of  a  greater  amount  of  expert  super- 
vision for  one-teacher  rural  schools  is  now  clearly  re- 
cognised. In  this  recognition  the  following  factors  and 
conditions  are  particularly  prominent:  (1)  the  problems 
of  rural  teachers  are  assuredly  the  most  perplexing  in 
the  whole  field  of  education;  (2)  rural  teachers  are  less 
well  prepared  than  the  urban  teachers;  (3)  they  are  less 
experienced;  (4)  their  professional  training  has  been 
least  well  adapted  to  the  kind  of  teaching  they  are 
called  upon  to  perform;  (5)  the  isolation  of  the  teacher 
makes  helpful  advice  and  association  with  other  teachers 
impossible;  and  (6)  the  one  or  more  annual  visits  from 
the  county  superintendent  or  inspector  can  never  give 
them  the  professional  encouragement  they  so  greatly 
need  American  and  South  African  inspectors  are,  in 
fact,  unable  to  approach  real  supervision  because  of  the 
vast  territory  involved;  the  large  number  of  schools, 
teachers  and  pupils  in  their  circuits;  the  variety  and 
amount  of  inspection  work  they  have  to  do;  their  un- 
preparedness  for  the  task;  and  the  many  clerical  duties 
they  are  compelled  to  perform. 

"  In  thirteen  states  to-day, — Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia, 
Kentucky,  Oregon,  Virginia,  Delaware,  New  Jersey,  Wisconsin, 
Illinois,  Maine,  Ohio,  Maryland,  and  Louisiana, — professional 
assistants  to  the  county  superintendent,  variously  known  as 
supervisors,  assistant  superintendents,  supervising  teachers, 
helping  teachers,  or  deputy  superintendents,  are  now  a  permitted 


T  Elliott,  E.  C.     City   School   Supervision,   Yonkers,   World  Book 
Co.,  1914,  p,  12. 


06 

or  required  part  of  the  state  school  system.  Such  assistants 
are  also  employed  in  occasional  counties  in  several  other  states, 
among  which  are  Montana,  Alabama,  Indiana,  North  and  South 
Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Tennessee."w 

The  specific  aims  of  rural  school  supervision  have  been 
defined  as  follows  by  L.  C.  Brogden,  State  Supervisor  of 
Eural  Elementary  Schools  in  North  Carolina: 

1.  To   increase   the    efficiency   of   the   individual   teacher  in 

her  classroom. 

2.  To  weld  the  rural  teachers  into  one  teaching  staff  work- 

ing with  oneness  of  purpose  and  unity  of  effort. 

3.  To  link  in  a  carefully  planned  and  systematic  way  the 

subject-matter  taught  in  the  school  with  the  home  life 
of  the  pupils. 

4.  To   reinforce  the   efforts  of  the  teacher   in  providing  in 

a    more   adequate    way   for    the   physical    training   and 
recreational   needs   of   the  children. 

5.  To  reinforce   the  efforts    of  the    teacher    in  making  the 

school  a  real  social  and  intellectual  centre  for  all  the 
people  in  the  community .* 

In  the  report  of  a  committee  of  American  rural  educa 
tors  on  "The  Distinction  between  Administration  and 
Supervision"  at  the  National  Education  Association 
meeting  in  Atlantic  City  in  1921  the  relation  of  the 
supervisor  to  the  teachers  supervised  was  defined  as  that 
of  a  college  instructor  to  the  members  of  his  class.  "  The 
supervisor  is  essentially  a  teacher  of  teachers."  More 
specifically  stated  the  functions  of  the  supervisor  are 
here  held  to  be:  (1)  assisting  at  teachers'  conferences; 
(2)  directing  group  teachers'  meetings  where  demon- 
stration lessons  are  given  and  discussed;  (3)  visiting 
the  teacher  at  work,  discussing  th,e  work  observed  in  a 
conference  with  the  teacher,  making  constructive  criti- 
cisms* and  leaving  a  record  of  the  problems  discussed 
and  the  remedies  suggested;  (4)  giving  assistance,  and 
guidance  to  teachers  by  correspondence;  (5)  using 
standard  tests  for  measuring  and  improving  the  school 
work;  (6)  stimulating,  guiding-  and  assisting  the  teacher 

^Dunn,  F.  W.  The  Distinction  between  Administration  and 
Supervision.  Educational  Administration  and  Super- 
vision, March,  1920,  p.  160. 

*  Brogden,  L.  C.  Annual  Report  of  State  Supervisor  of  Rural 
Elementary  Schools  for  1920-21.  Raleigh,  North 
Carolina,  p.  6-8. 


97 

in   her  community  relationships;   and    (7)    reporting  to 
the  superintendent  on  the  supervisory  activities. 

Teachers'  meetings  have  been  found  especially  helpful 
in  the  work  of  supervision  in  the  United  States.  They 
serve  as  a  means  of  getting  teachers  to  work  together 
with  a  common  interest  and  for  the  good  of  all;  they 
make  possible  social  contacts  and  group  inspiration; 
and  through  them  the  supervisor  is  able  to  organise  his 
work  economically.  A  teacher  who  is  doing  a  piece  of 
work  well  is  often  asked  to  demonstrate  before  a 
teachers'  meeting.  For  this  purpose  the  teachers  assem- 
ble at  a  selected  school  where  the  demonstration  lesson 
is  presented  and  discussed  so  as  to  bring  out  the  difficul 
ties  encountered  and  the  reasons  for  the  success  attained. 
Another  method  employed  by  American  Supervisors  for 
improving  the  teachers  under  their  charge  is  that  of 
professional  visiting.  Under  this  plan  a  teacher  who 
needs  help  may  visit  another  teacher  who  is  succeeding 
in  some  procedure  that  the  former  is  in  need  of.  The 
demonstration  teacher  is  informed  as  to  the  particular 
type  of  lesson  or  method  which  she  is  to  illustrate  and 
a  conference  between  the  two  teachers  follows  the  de- 
monstration. 

3.     RURAL  SCHOOL  TEACHERS. 

In  the  European  countries,  Denmark,  England,  France, 
Germany,  Norway,  Sweden  and  Switzerland,  the  typical 
rural  teacher  is  a  mature  married  man.  These  men  are 
generally  well  prepared  for  their  work,  well  paid  and 
of  permanent  tenure.  In  England,  France  and  Germany 
the  rural  schools  are, ,  with  few  exceptions  situated  in 
villages.  Conditions  in  the  Cape  Province  can  be  com- 
pared only  with  those  which  pertain  in  countries  having 
the  open-country  school,  as  for  example  the  United 
States,  Canada,  and  Australia.  Three  studies  have  been 
made  of  the  rural  school  teacher  in  the  United  States, 
namely,  those  of  Nebraska  (1917),  Pennsylvania  (1920). 
and  New  York  (192117  For  comparison  the  results  of 

y  The   Rural   Teacher   of   Nebraska,   U.S.   Bureau   of  Education, 

Bulletin  1919,   No.  20. 

King,  L.  A.     The  Rural  Teacher  in  Pennsylvania,  1920. 
Bagley,  W.C.     The  New  York  State  Rural   School  Survey,  1922. 


98 


these  studies  and  of  the  one  made  herein  of  the  Cape 
Province  are  placed  in  the  following  table: 

Cape  Province.  New  York.  Pennsylvania.  Nebraska. 
Median  ago 


of  teacher 

22.3 

24 

22.8 

21.01 

Median  years 

of  experience 

3.2 

5 

3.7 

2 

Median  begin- 

ning age 

19.1 

19 

19.2 

19 

Median 

teacher 

bred   in 

country 

country 

country 

country 

Percentage 

of  men 

teachers 

32.8 

6.9 

24 

10.3 

Percentage 

married  men 

53 

55 

Percentage 

teaching 

first  year 

20.8 

22 

30 

33 

Median 

teacher's 

H.S.  education 

1  yr. 

3  or  4  yrs. 

2  or  3  yrs. 

4  yrs. 

Percentage 

graduated 

from  H.S. 

6.6 

56 

22 

42 

ISTormal 

school 

education 

3  yrs. 

1  yr. 

None       One  summer 

Median  salary 

per  annum 

$698.38 

$837 

$411 

$445.28 

Median  cost 

of  board 

&  lodging 

$176.90 

$294 

$121 

$114.80 

Teacher's 

* 

appointment 

Permanent 

Temporary 

Temporary 

Temporary 

Median  No. 

of  grades 

(Stds.)  in 

school 

5.2 

7 

Median  No. 

of  -pupils 

per  teacher 

16 

26 

No.  of  children 

in  farm  home 

where  teacher 

is  boarding 

4 

1  or  2 

2 

"Week-ends 

spent 

On  farm 

away 

away 

away 

99 

In  interpreting  the  above  data  there  are  several 
factors  to  be  taken  into  account.  Th,e  Nebraska  study 
was  made  five  years  ago  in  1917.  The  Nebraska  and 
Pennsylvania  studies  were  limited  to  the  one-teacher 
schools,  while  the  studies  of  the  Cape  Province  and  of 
New  York  included  all  the  rural  teachers.  The  median 
teacher  in  each  of  the  latter  cases,  however,  is  represen- 
tative of  the  teacher  in  the  one- teacher  school. 

The  outstanding  weakness  of  rural  teachers  in  the 
Cape  Province  is  their  lack  of  high  school  education. 
This  is  especially  serious  when  it  is  remembered  that 
pupils  in  the  United  States  graduate  from  a  12-year 
school  course  as  against  a  10-year  course  in  the  Cape 
Province.  The  tb/ree  years  of  normal  school  education 
compensates  somewhat  for  this,  but  not  sufficiently. 
Since  this  study  was  made,  however,  the  standard  of 
admission  to  the  normal  school  has  been  raised  to  two 
years  of  high  school  and  this  is  to  be  followed  by  a  two- 
year  normal  course.  But  this  standard  needs  to  be 
raised  still  further  in  the  near  future. 

Another  great  evil  with  which  the  Cape  system  has 
to  cope  is  the  continual  migration  of  country  teachers. 
Here  rural  teachers  are  able  to  leave  their  posts  at  the 
end  of  any  one  of  the  four  quarters.  In  the  United 
States  they  generally  sign  a  contract  to  teach  for  a  year. 
So  long  as  rural  teachers  continue  to  be  peripatetics  the 
best  results  cannot  be  expected.  Indiana,  Wisconsin 
and  Maryland  offer  a  bonus  to  rural  teachers  who 
remain  more  than  a  year  in  the  same  school. 

4.     RURAL-TEACHER   PREPARATION. 

German  elementary  school  teacher  is  said  to  be 
the  most  completely  trained  teacher  in  the  world.  His 
training  covers  a  period  of  six  years,  three  of  which 
are  spent  in  a  preparatory  normal  school  and  three  in 
the  normal  school  proper  where  academic  courses  are 
given  together  with  special  technical  training  required 
for  his  professional  duties.  During  the  last  year  he 
teaches  in  the  model  school  from  six  to  ten  hours  weekly. 


100 

For  this  purpose  every  German  normal  school  must  have 
attached  to  it  a  graded  model  school.  A  few  have  also 
an  ungraded  model  school.2 

In  the  United  States  twenty-five  states  employed  high 
schools  for  the  preparation  of.  rural  teachers  in  1920- 
1921.  Seven  states  provided  for  this  work  in  separate 
special  departments;  the  others  as  part  of  the  regular 
high  school  course.  Wisconsin,  in  addition  to  the  use 
of  high  schools  for  rural  teacher  preparation,  operated 
thirty  county  trailing  schools  for  this  purpose. 

"  In  the  high  school  training-classes  of  Minnesota  one  period 
each  day,  practically  for  the  entire  year,  is  spent  by  the  training- 
class  student  in  the  elementary  school.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  year  two  weeks  are  given  to  class  observation.  Then  each 
student  takes  a  group  of  about  five  pupils  for  15  minutes  each 
day,  the  teaching  being  limited  at  the  outset  to  very  simple 
exercises  preferably  of  the  "  drill "  type.  After  two  weeks  of 
this  work,  the  training-class  spends  a  week  in  visiting  and 
observing  neighbouring  rural  schools,  and  the  following  week 
is  devoted  to  a  discussion  of  these  visits.  With  this  preparation 
the  more  intensive  teaching  of  small  groups  in  the  local  graded 
schools  is  begun  and  continued  for  three  months.  Following 
this,  two  months  are  spent  in  teaching  larger  groups,  and  then 
two  weeks  in  actual  rural  school  teaching.  For  the  specific 
purpose  of  providing  the  students  with  experience  in  beginning 
first  grade  work,  small  classes  are  organized  toward  the  end 
of  the  year  comprising  children  in  the  community  who  would 
normally  enter  school  the  subsequent  fall.  Students  take  charge 
of  these  classes  under  close  supervision  and  work  with  them 
for  eight  weeks. "a 

Rural  school  practice  in  the  same  system  is  organised 
as  follows : 

(1)  Each  rural  teacher  submits  to  the  training 
teacher  an  outline  of  the  subject-matter  to  be  taught 
while  the  student-teacher  is  visiting  and  also  a  list  of 
the  texts  used  in  the  school.  This  information  is  to 
aid  the  students  in  planning  their  work. 

*  Kandel,  I.  L.  Training  of  Elementary  School  Teachers  in 
Germany.  Teachers'  College,  Columbia  Univ.,  1910,  pp. 
74,  75. 

a  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching,  Bulle- 
tin 14,  1920,  p.  176. 


(2)  Each  rural  teacher  receives  a  practice  scheme  in- 
dicating the  amount  of  teaching  the  student  is  to  do. 
This  varies  with  strong  and  weak  students  but  in  general 
follows    a  plan    providing    for   observation    first    then 
teaching  in  succession  one-quarter  day,  one-half  day  and 
a  full  day. 

(3)  The  training  teacher  gives  each  rural  teacher  an 
outline    for    reporting    the    student-teacher    under    her 
charge.     Emphasis  is  placed  on  the  student's  ability  to 
manage  and  teach   the  whole  school  at  one  time,  this 
being  the  particular  purpose  of  this  type  of  practice. 
No  group  teaching  is  allowed,  the  aim  being  to  provide 
typical  rural  school  experience. 

(4)  Arrangements    for   transportation    and   board    of 
the  student-teacher  are  clearly  made  with  every  rural 
teacher. 

(5)  All  the  students  are  placed  in  the  country  at  the 
same  time  and  the  department  is  closed.     This  permits 
the  training  teacher  to  spend  her  time  in   supervising 
the  students  and  visiting  each  at  least  once. 

(6)  Upon  the  return  of  the  students  reports  are  made, 
class  discussions  of  the  rural  teaching  experience  follow, 
and  problems  are  brought  up  for  solution. 

Of  the  170  general  public  normal  schools  in  the  United 
States  in  1921  there  were  113  giving  special  courses  for 
rural  teachers.b  These  courses  include  such  subjects  as 
rural  school  management,  rural  sociology  and  economies' 
nature  study  and  agriculture,  rural  health  and  sanita- 
tion, arithmetic  and  farm  accounts,  industrial  arts, 
history  and  community  civics,  home  economics,  manual 
training,  and  physical  education  and  games. 

In  the  province  of  Quebec,  Canada,  the  co-operation 
between  the  Schools  of  Agriculture  and  Household 
Science,  and  the  School  for  Teachers  at  Macdonald 
College  is  accomplishing  a  great  deal  in  strengthening 
the  rural  school  teachers.  In  Nova  Scotia  the  location 
of  the  Normal  School  and  Agricultural  College  in  the 
same  town  (Truro),  with  their  close  co-operation  in  the 

b  Carney,  Mabel.     Mimeographed  material. 


1Q2 

matter  of  teacher-training  gives  a  special  opportunity 
for  excellent  work  in  adjusting  teacher-training  to  meet 
rural  needs.  Here  nature  study,  elementary  science,  and 
agriculture  form  part  of  the  regular  normal  school 
course  and  the  rural  science  courses  given  every  summer 
are  especially  effective.0 

The  recent  report  of  an  experiment  in  practice  teach- 
ing in  rural  schools  for  a  large  number  of  students 
during  a  period  of  three  weeks  was  published  in  School- 
ing, May,  1921,  Teachers  College  Press,  Sydney,  N.S.W., 
Australia.  Seventy-three  students  from  the'  Teachers 
College  went  into  camp  at  Glenbrook  42  miles  from 
Sydney  in  1920.  Each  day  the  party  split  up  into 
groups  for  teaching  practice  in  the  eleven  adjacent 
schools  to  which  they  were  conveyed  by  train  or  motor 
bus.  In  this  way  the  students  were  able  to  get  three 
weeks  of  first-hand  acquaintance  with  the  actual  con- 
ditions of  rural  schools.  The  experiment  at  Glenbrook 
proved  so  successful  that  it  was  decided  to  continue  the 
work  and  in  1921  there  were  89  students  in  camp  at 
Camden.  Both  camps  were  self-contained  and  self- 
supporting. 

In  Victoria,  Australia,  four  courses  have  been  pro- 
vided for  the  training  of  teachers;  namely,  a  secondary, 
a  primar}',  an  infant,  and  a  short-course  for  teachers 
of  small  rural  schools.  Under  a  correspondence  system 
rural  teachers  may  receive  further  instruction  by  cor- 
responding with  the  Melbourne  High  School.d 

For  the  practice  teaching  of  its  students  the  Training 
College  in  New  Zealand  has  " model  schools",  one  of 
these  being  a  rural  public  school  under  a  sole  teacher. 
Only  teachers  who  have  shown  special  skill  in  managing 
a  country  school  may  be  placed  in  charge  of  a  model 
school  of  this  type,  and  those  selected  receive  special 
remuneration.6 

c  Miller,  J.  C.    Rural  Schools  in  Canada,  pp.  72,  73. 

dEd.   in   Parts   of  the  British   Empire.     Bulletin   1919,   No.   49, 

U.S.  Bureau  of  Education,  p.  41. 
*  Report  of  the  Minister  of  Education  for  the  year  ended  31st 

December,  1920,  p.  20. 


103 

Present  practice  in  the  Cape  Province  distinguishes 
between  the;  preparation  of  primary,  secondary,  infant 
school,  and  special  subject  teachers,  but  no  special  pro- 
vision has  been  made  for  the  preparation  of  rural 
teachers.  This  defect  has  been  recognised  by  the 
Superintendent-General  of  Education  in  his  report  for 
the  year  ended  31st  December,  1918,  on  page  5: 

"  There  is  need  for  the  special  training  of  student-teachers, 
who  are -likely  to  have  charge  of  single- teacher  schools.  One 
experiment  in  this  direction  which  will  'be  followed  with  interest 
is  the  establishment  of  a  small  one-room  practising  school  in  con- 
nection with  the  Cape  Town  Training  College." 

From  this  meagre  showing  it  is  evident  that  we  have 
fallen  far  behind  in  this  line  of  progress. 

As  formerly  noted,  another  weakness  of  our  system 
is  the  lack  of  provisions  for  the  improvement  of  teachers 
in  service.  In  the  United  States  due  to  the  many  sub- 
sidiary agencies  for  training  teachers  which  have  been  so 
highly  and  largely  developed  the  American  teacher  re- 
mains a  student.  These  agencies  can  only  be  men- 
tioned here.  They  include:  Supervision,  inspection  and 
standardization,  state  and  county  institutes,  teachers^ 
meetings,  summer  schools  at  normal  schools  and  at 
universities,  correspondence  work  with  and  extension 
teaching  from  State  Institutions,  controlled  courses  in 
professional  reading  or  teachers'  reading  circles,  leaves 
of  absence  for  study,  and  visiting  days  when  one  teacher 
visits  the  school  of  another/ 

5.     CouRvSES  OP  STUDY. 
(A)     Elementary  School. 

The  subjects  taught  in  the  elementary  schools  of  differ 
ent  countries  are  much  the  same.  It  is  not  the  purpose 

f  See :  Ruediger,  W.C.  Agencies  for  the  Improvement  of 
Teachers  in  Service.  U.S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin 
1911,  No.  3. 

Russell,  C.  The  Improvement  of  the  City  Elementary  School 
Teacher  in  Service.  Teachers'  College,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, N.Y.,  1922. 


104 

here  to  consider  these  subjects  in  turn.  This  study 
proposes  rather  to  show  how  rural  education  should  differ 
from  urban  education  and  to  discuss  those  subjects  which 
are  regarded  as  especially  rural.  A  few  extracts  will 
show  what  educators  in  the  different  countries  have  been 
thinking  and  doing  in  this  matter. 

Rural  elementary  education  is  strengthened  and  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  rural  life  by  (a)  bringing  the  curriculum  into 
touch  with  the  rural  environment,  and  (b)  introducing  such 
subjects  as  provide  a  manual  as  well  as  an  intellectual  training. 
(England,  Board  of  Education.  Memorandum  on  the  Principles 
and  Methods  of  Rural  Education,  1911,  p.  1). 

Rural  children  snouici  nave  educational  facilities  equal  to  those 
enjoyed  by  town  children.  Nothing  should  be  done  that  would 
lessen  the  opportunities  of  the  children  at  school  or  check  them 
in  the  free  choice  of  their  future  career.  Handwork  should  be 
utilised  in  an  educational  rather  than  a  vocational  manner. 
Handwork  should  be  part  and  parcel  of  the  very  life  of  the 
school,  not  merely  tacked  on  as  a  handicraft  subject  (C.  H. 
Turnor.  New  Movements  in  Rural  Education.  London  1919. 
pp.  5,  8). 

The  subject  matter  taught  in  the  elementary  rural  schools 
of  Denmark  is  organised  in  a  manner  to  emphasise:  (1) 
Thoroughness  in  the  fundamental  subjects,  (2)  an  under- 
standing of  the  nature  environment  in  which  the  children  live; 
and  (3)  familiarity  with  subjects  of  immediate  social-economic 
value.  (Foght  H.  W.  The  Educational  System  of  Rural 
Denmark.  Bulletin  1913,  No.  58,  p.  20) . 

Educators  are  seeking  instruction  material  outside  of  books 
and  classrooms  to  an  extent  that  was  not  practical  before; 
and  they  find  more  of  it  in  direct  life  and  living  than  was  ever 
before  considered  in  connection  with  school  purposes.  In 
Sweden  and  Denmark  emphasis  is  laid  on  making,  handling, 
observing,  and  producing  things ;  school  trips  preceded  by  map- 
ping the  route  and  followed  by  putting  the  notes  of  the  trip  into 
organised  form;  researcnes  and  studies  in  the  home  locality  and 
its  resources  and  industrial  possibilities.  (Schools  of  Scandi- 
navia, Finland  and  Holland.  Bulletin  1919.  No.  29.  F.S.  Bureau 
of  Ed.  p.  4). 

Nature  study  as  related  to  the  open  country,  agriculture 
adapted  to  the  local  needs  and  conditions,  manual  training  of  the 
type  most  related  to  the  needs  of  the  farm,  home  economics 
suited  to  the  conditions  of  the  farm-home,— these  are  the  basis 


105 

of  the  rural-school  curriculum,  the  core  around  which  the  other 
subjects  are  to  be  grouped.  (Betts  and  Hall.  Better  Rural 
Schools.  1914.  p.  63). 

Vocations  are  differentiated  and  specialised  instead  of  general 
in  value,  and  have  no  place  in  the  elementary  school.  There 
is,  however,  need  of  occupational  material  in  the  course  of 
study  (a)  to  give  knowledge,  insight,  appreciations  and  right 
attitudes  in  the  economic  field,  (b)  to  afford  a  basis  of  experience 
in  which  abstract  virtues  may  develop,  (c)  to  vitalise  the  tool 
studies  by  life  associations. 

The  subject-matter  being  taught  must  be  linked  intelligently 
and  systematically  with  the  every-day  needs  and  vital  interests 
of  the  pupils  upon  the  farm  and  in  the  home.  Since  the  nature 
of  these  needs  and  interests  is  determined  in  part  by  native 
capacities  and  in  part  by  environment  and  experience,  the 
activities  engaged  in  may  vary  for  different  communities. 

There  is  no  need  to  provide  artificially  in  or  through  the  school 
what  is  already  afforded  by  the  natural  environment.  The 
task  of  the  school  is  (1)  to  see  that  the  contribution  of  the 
environment  to  desired  ends  is  realised,  (2)  to  supplement  the 
natural  first-hand  experience  of  the  local  environment  with 
artificially  devised  first-hand  experiences  of  other  environments, 
or  if  this  is  not  possible,  with  second-hand  experience  through 
reading,  pictures,  etc.  (Dr.  Fannie  W.  Dunn.  Proceedings 
of  the  N.E.A.  Atlantic  City  Meeting  1921.  Vol.  59.  p.  570.) 

The  purpose  of  rural  elementary?  education  is  the  same  as 
for  elementary  education  anywhere.  Its  major  objectives  are 
as  constant  as  the  purposes  of  society.  Some  of  its  problems, 
as  those  in  reading,  writing,  language,  and  spelling  are  fairly 
stable,  others  are  more  variable.  Within  such  subjects  as 
hygiene,  nature  study,  local  geography,  local  history  and  com- 
munity civics,  adaptation  to  local  conditions  as  well  as  needs 

is  imperative  psychologically   no   less    than   sociologically 

for  method  as  well  as  purpose;  but  such  adaptation  is  no  less 
needed  in  city  than  in  country.  (Dr.  D.  Snedden,  Mimeographed 
material). 

The  work  of  the  country  schools  (of  Western  Australia)  is 
receiving  special  attention.  Teachers  are  being  trained  with 
a  view  to  their  special  needs,  and  a  special  curriculum  is  being 
prepared  for  them.  It  is  not  so  much  that  the  actual  subjects 
of  instruction  need  to  be  different  as  that  they  shall  be  treated 
in  a  different  manner,  so  that  the  atmosphere  of  the  school  shall 
be  that  of  a  rural  institution,  fitted  for  the  needs  of  a  rural 
community.  Nature  study  and  elementary  agriculture  form 
a  centre  round  which  much  of  the  school  work  can  be  grouped. 
(Report  of  the  Education  Department  for  the  year  1920.  p.  10). 


106 

After  summing  up  the  many  proposed  purposes  for 
rural  elementary  education  in  the  United  States  and 
criticising  and  evaluating  them  in  terms  of  underlying 
principles  O.  G.  Brim  concludes  that  the  objectives;  (1) 
to  retain  children  on  the  farm,  (2)  to  provide  vocational 
preparation,  (3)  to  prepare  country  children  for  a  satis- 
fying rural  life,  and  (4)  to  prepare  children  for  general 
efficiency  by  means  of  rural  resources  are  not  valid. 
Rural  children  should  be  prepared  for  general  efficiency 
by  supplementing  rural  resources. 

"  Rural  elementary  education  is  merely  elementary  educa- 
tion in  a  rural  setting.  The  principles  that  control  its 
activity  and  purposes  are  those  of  child  growth  in  general 
and  social  welfare  at  large.  There  is  nothing  local  in  its 
purpose.  Its  differences  will  be  due  to  the  local  approach  and 
to  the  different  needs  to  be  supplied  in  order  that  the  rural 
child  may  realise  through  his  environment  the  growth  that  is 
justly  his,  and  in  order  that  society  may  realise  from  him  the 
contribution  it  has  a  right  to  expect."  g 

"  The  rural  elementary  school  must  socialise  the  rural-urban 
relations  as  the  basis  for  rural  progress.  And  to  socialise 
means  to  integrate,  not  to  differentiate."14 


The  most  instructive  rural  school  course  in  the  United 
States  is  that  of  the  State  of  Montana. 

"  The  present  tendency  all  over  the  country  is  to  make  a 
curriculum  not  merely  a  bare  outline  of  subject  matter  but  also 
motivated  material  and  suggestive  live  issue  problems.  The  Mon- 
tana course  is  fuller  than  the  older  courses  in  this  and  other 
states,  as  the  outline  of  subject  matter  has  been  enriched  by 
method  helps,  type  lessons,  references,  and  a  few  educational 
principles."1 


g  Brim,  O.  G.  A  study  of  the  Needs  and  Objectives  of  Rural 
Elementary  Education.  Doctor's  dissertation.  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University.  1920.  p.  213. 

h  Ibid  p.  154. 

i  State  Course  of  Study.  Rural  Schools  of  Montana.  State 
Department  of  Public  Instruction.  Helena.  Montana. 
1919.  p.  5. 


107 

(7?)    Junior  High  School. 

In  the  United  States  the  Junior  High  School  occupies 
a  position  somewhat  comparable  to  the  Secondary  School 
fas  distinct  from  the  High  School)  in  the  Cape  Province. 
Tn  the  latter  six  differentiated  courses  are  offered:  (1) 
boys'  general  course,  (2)  girls'  general  course,  (3)  aca- 
demic  course, '(4)  commercial  course,  (5)  rural  course, 
and  (6)  domestic  course.  Each  course  includes  six 
subjects  or  pairs  of  half -subjects;  for  example  the  rural 
course  makes  provision  for:  (1)  First  language*  (2) 
second  language,  (3)  science,  (4)  history  and  geography, 
(5)  a.  arithmetic,  b.  mathematics;  (6)  a.  manual  train- 
ing, b.  book-keeping.  Tb,e  first  four  subjects  are  the 
same  in  each  course.  In  arithmetic  there  is  some  differ- 
entiation into  ordinary  arithmetic,  commercial  arith- 
metic, and  housecraft  arithmetic.  These  subjects  when 
once  selected  have  to  be  studied  for  two  years. 

Besides  the  prescribed  courses  in  the  Junior  High 
School  in  the  United  States  a  number  of  short  courses- 
are  offered  lasting  only  for  a  semester.  These  brief 
exploratory  courses  enable  a  pupil  to  discover  the  field 
for  which  he  is  specially  adapted.  Professor  T.  H- 
Briggs  has  said : — 

"  The  junior  high  school  should  attempt  (1)  to  continue,  in  so 
far  as  it  may  seem  wise  and  possible,  and  in  a  gradually  diminish- 
ing degree,  common,  integrating  education;  (2)  to  ascertain 
and  reasonably  to  satisfy  pupils'  important  immediate  and  assured 
future  needs;  (3)  to  explore  by  means  of  material  in  itself  wortl* 
while  the  interests,  aptitudes,  and  capacities  of  pupils,  (4)  to 
reveal  to  them,  by  material  otherwise  justifiable,  the  possibilities 
in  the  major  fields  of  learning,  (5)  to  start  each  pupil  on  the 
career  which,  as  a  result  of  the  exploratory  courses,  he,  his 
parents,  and  the  school  are  convinced  is  most  likely  to  be  of 
profit  to  him  and  to  the  state."  3 

(C)     Senior  High  School. 

The  syllabus  for  the  last  two  years  of  high  school 
in  the  Cape  Province  requires  the  taking  of  six  subjects 
of  which  agricultural  science  and  manual  training  belong 
more  particularly  to  the  rural  course.  The  organisation 

3  Briggs  T.  11.     The  Junior  High  School,  p.  26. 


108 

of  the  courses  of  study  in  the  senior  high  school  in  the 
United  States  makes  provision  for  individual  differences 
in  terms  of  capacities  and  special  abilities  by  means  of 
elective  courses,  promotion  by  subjects,  and  the  possibility 
of  carrying  varying  amounts  of  work.  The  factors  of  re- 
tardation and  elimination  are  taken  into  consideration 
also,  so  that  instead  of  the  pupil  being  eliminated  he  is 
retained  as  long  as  possible  by  properly  differentiated 
courses.  There  is,  in  addition,  a  recognition  of  the  needs 
of  those  who  are  compelled  to  leave  school  early  and 
different  prevocational  and  vocational  courses  are  given. 
If  secondary  schools  are  to  offer  courses  which  are 
determined  by  local  demands  and  which  serve  community 
interests  th,e  rural  high  school,  surrounded  by  agricul- 
tural homes  and  people  whose  vocational  interests  are 
largely  agricultural  should  then  give  special  attention 
to  the  preparation  of  its  pupils  for  farm  life.  It  will 
be  well  therefore  to  see  what  has  been  done  in  the  schools 
of  the  different  countries  for  the  teaching  of  agriculture. 

(D)     Agriculture. 

In  France  agriculture  is  taught  in  all  rural  primary 
schools.  The  work  begins  with  object  lessons,  then 
changes  to  nature  study  of  a  practical  kind  and  finally 
develops  into  agriculture  and  hygiene  with  practical 
exercises  in  cultivation  and  in  grafting.  A  regular  text 
in  agriculture  is  used.  In  Belgium  the  theory  and 
practices  of  agriculture,  closely  adapted  to  local  needs, 
are  taught  in  nearly  all  of  the  rural  schools.  Germany, 
Austria  and  Switzerland  have  developed  special  agricul- 
tural schools,  rather  than  general  work  in  agriculture  in 
connection  with  the  regular  elementary  schools.  In 
Sweden  the  elements  of  agriculture  and  forestry  are 
taught  in  all  the  rural  schools.  In  Denmark  nature 
study  is  taught  informally  throughout  the  first  three 
years  and  is  then  continued  as* biology  and  agriculture 
to  the  end  of  the  course.  Japan  has  introduced  agricul- 
tural instruction  with  marked  success.* 

k  Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of  Education — Agricultural  Education. 


109 

Canada  and  Australia  have  provided  for  the  teaching 
of  agriculture  in  certain  grades,  but  in  England  little 
has  been  done.  In  Ontario,  Canada,  wherever  instruc- 
tion in  agriculture  has  been  established  as  a  regular 
subject  of  the  public  school  curriculum  it  has  maintained 
itself  and  steadily  grown  in  public  favour.  Perhaps 
the  most  conspicuous  proof  of  the  part  agricultural 
education  is  coming  to  play  in  the  Province  is  seen  in  the 
school  fair  exhibits  held  in  the  rural  districts,  and  serv- 
ing by  means  of  the  appeal  to  local  productions,  interests, 
and  the  awarding  of  prizes  for  excellence  along  agricul- 
tural lines,  to  arouse  and  maintain  a  social  solidarity 
unknown  until  their  introduction.1 

In  the  United  States  generalised  nature  study  is 
taught  in  the  lower  grades  leading  to  elementary  agricul- 
ture of  a  n  on -vocational  type  in  the  upper  grades.  The 
greatest  achievement  here  has  been  realised  through  the 
Boys'  and  Girls'  Agricultural  Club  Movement.  These 
clubs  aim  to  promote  an  intelligent  interest  in  farm  life 
and  surroundings  through  friendly  contests  in  crop 
growing,  live-stock  production,  gardening  and  canning, 
and  similar  activities. 

Schools  of  secondary  grade  for  theoretical  and  practical 
training  in  agriculture  exist  in  France,  Russia,  Germany, 
Austra,  Sweden,  and  Japan.  Ontario,  Canada  has 
organised  a  two-year  course  in  agriculture  in  her  high 
schools  while  Alberta  has  agricultural  high  schools. 

Tn  the  United  States  the  schools  giving  secondary  work 
in  agriculture  include:  (a)  secondary  schools  of  agricul- 
ture in  connection  with  the  colleges  of  agriculture;  (b) 
special  agricultural  high  schools,  (c)  normal  schools,  and 
(d)  regular  high  schools  offering  instruction  in  agricul- 
ture as  part  of  their  course  of  instruction.  The  last  type 
named  is  in  the  great  majority  and  has  been  made 
possible  through  the  Smith-Hughes  act.  The  Smith- 
Hughes  act  extends  Federal  aid  for  the  promotion  of 
vocational  education  to  pupils  above  14  years  of  age.  The 


1  Ed.   in    Parts   of   the   British    Empire.     Bulletin   1919,    No.   49 
Bureau   of  Education,  p.   18. 


110 

purpose  of  the  law  is  to  encourage  secondary  schools, 
both  rural  and  urban,  to  offer  well-planned  courses  in 
agriculture,  the  trades,  and  industrial  subjects,  includ- 
ing home  economics."1  The  number  of  schools  offering 
vocational  courses  in  agriculture  and  receiving  the  benefit 
of  the  Smith-Hughes  fund  was  1,375  in  1920  as  against 
609  for  the  year  1918.  The  total  enrolment  in  agricul- 
tural courses  in  the  Smith-Hughes  schools  increased  from 
15,453  in  1918  to  31,301  in  1920.n 

In  most  of  the  United  States  a  four-year  curriculum  in 
agriculture  is  maintained  in  the  high  schools.  In  New 
York  the  following  subjects  are  included  in  the  state 
curriculum:  Poultry,  farmshop;  soils,  home  gardening, 
farm  crops;  animal  husbandry,  dairying,  fruit  growing; 
farm  management  and  farm  engineering. 

Here  the  ''training  in  the  practice  of  farming  is  accomplished 
by  a  home  project  which  may  be  defined  as  a  farming  enterprise 
studied  and  planned  at  school  un^er  direction  and  carried  into 
operation  on  the  home  farm  or  other  farm  where  satisfactory 
arrangements  are  made  under  the  supervision  of  the  teacher 
of  agriculture.  It  is  not  a  series  of  problems  relating  to 
agriculture  but  is  rather  a  definite  piece  of  work  in  the  conduct- 
ing of  which  ownership,  correct  business  methods,  managerial 
ability,  economic  profit  and  study  are  emphasised."  ° 

In  the  organisation  of  a  high  school  department  of 
vocational  agriculture  consideration  is  given  to  at  least 
three  groups.  These  are:  — 

(1)  Pupils  regularly  enrolled  in  the  school  who  pursue 
the  agricultural  curriculum. 

(2)  'Boys  and  young  men  who  have  left  the  school  with- 
out   completing    the     elementary     or     high     school 
courses  and    who   may    be  interested    in  receiving 
definite  instruction  in  the  vocation  of  farming. 

(3)  Adults   living   and   working   on   farms   desiring   in- 
struction in  specialised  phases  of  their  work. p 


*»  Foght,  H.  W.     The  Rural  Teacher  and  his  Work.     p.  85 
•Agricultural    Educatipn.     U.S.    Bureau  of   Education    Bulletin, 

1921,  No.  40,  p.  16. 

•Bulletin  No.  703,  University  of  the  State  of  New  York.  p.  16. 
p.  29. 


Ill 

The  teachers  of  agriculture  employed  in  the  high 
schools  receive  their  training  at  the  college  of  agriculture. 
Not  only  has  rapid  progress  been  made  in  the  improve- 
ment of  curricula  for  the  training  of  teachers  of  agricul- 
ture, but  great  achievements  have  been  made  toward 
providing  appropriate  facilities  for  practice  in  teaching 
on  the  part  of  prospective  teachers.  The  committee  on 
practice  teaching  of  the  American  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Agricultural  Teaching  at  its  Springfield 
meeting,  in  1920,  suggested  the  following  standards: — 

(1)  The  teaching  should  be  conducted  with  pupils  who 
are    studying   vocational   agriculture. 

(2)  The  amount  of  teaching  should  consist  of  not  less 
than  60  actual  hours. 

(3)  The  conditions   under  which  the  practice  teaching 
*          is   conducted   should  be  *as  nearly   as  possible  like 

those   that   the  teacher   will   find  when  he  accepts 
regular  employment. 

(4)  The  teacher  in  training  should  have  sufficient  super- 
vision to  insure  professional  growth. 

(5)  The  teacher  in  training  should  have  an  opportunity 
to     supervise     the  *  practical    work     of    vocational 
students. 

(6)  The     community     relations     of     the     teacher     of 
agriculture    are    so    important    that    he    should    be 
expected  to  participate  in  community  activities.  .q 

In  connection  with  a  course  taken  under  Professor 
Works  at  Cornell  University  the  following  principles 
were  drawn  up  for  the  making  of  a  high  school  curriculum 
in  agriculture: 

(1)  There    should    be    such    a    degree   of   flexibility    as 
will  permit  of  adaptation  to  the  varying  farming 
conditions  of  the  state.       In  any  given  community 
there   should   be  recognition  of  the  actual  farming 
needs   and   the  possibilities  in  that  region. 

(2)  The  arrangement  of  subjects  should  be  such  as  to 
give    opportunity    for    the    utilization    of    seasonal 
sequence  to  the  largest  possible  degree. 


Agricultural  Education.     U.S.   Bureau  of  Education.     Bulletin 
1921,  No.  40,  p.  13. 


112 

(3)  There  should  be  recognition  early  in  the  curriculum 
of   the    dominant   farming   enterprises   of   the   com- 
munity. 

(4)  Abstract,  technical  or  unifying  subjects  should  come 
late  in   the  curriculum. 

(5)  Subjects,    the   primary   outcome   of  which   is   skill, 
should  come  early  in  the  curriculum  so  as  to  give 
opportunity  for  adequate  development  of  skill  under 
farm  conditions. 

((>)  In  general,  the  organisation  of  subject  matter  in 
the  courses  should  be  such  as  to  place  any  given 
topic  as  a  part  of  the  subject  in  which  it  is  most 
likely  to  function  under  tarni  conditions. 

(7)  Tne  subjects  that  appear  early  in  the  curriculum 
should  lend  themselves  readily  to  project  work. 

(8)  The  vocational   elements  of  the  curriculum  should 
be   represented   by   strictly   vocational   subjects   and 
not  by  modified  academic  subjects. 

(9)  Opportunity  should  be  given  for  the  largest  possible 
amount  of  co-Qrdination  between  the  vocational  and 
non-vocational  elements  of  the  curriculum. 

The  work  of  the  several  years  should  be  formulated 
and  distributed  with  reference  to  the  ability  and 
experience  of  the  student  body  that  is  being  served. 
(11)  The  non-vocational  portion  of  the  curriculum  should 
maue  provision  for  health  education,  development 
of  desirable  permanent  interests,  civic  attitudes,  and 
recreation. 


6.     BUILDINGS,,  GROUNDS  AND  EQUIPMENT. 

In  the  United  States  standardisation  is  one  of  the 
means  rather  widely  used  for  the  improvement  of  the 
rural  school.  Many  state  departments  of  education  and 
some  counties  have  issued  standardisation  bulletins. 
The  standards  thus  established  require  a  school  plant 
equipped  to  provide  an  education  related  to  rural  life 
and  its  needs  by  having  ample  grounds,  room  and  equip- 
ment for  experimental  agriculture,  and  gardening  and 
industrial  arts.  There  must  be  correct  lighting,  heating 
and  ventilation,  an  ample  and  sanitary  water  supply,  and 
sanitary  closets.  Here  the  best  one-teacher  rural  schools 
have  small  rooms  or  alcoves  also,  adjoining  the  classroom 
to  house  the  library  and  provide  for  activities  in  domestic 
science,  manual  training  and  agriculture. 


113 

In  Ontario,  Canada,  the  one-teacher  rural  school  has  a 
rest  room  for  the  teacher  and  the  newer  buildings  are 
being  constructed  more  and  more  with  a  view  to  com- 
munity centre  purposes.  Sometimes  one  or  more  addi- 
tional small  rooms  for  sewing  and  agricultural  purposes 
aie  provided.  The  grounds  are  nearly  always  fenced  so 
a*s  to  keep  out  stray  farm  animals/  Manitoba,  Ontario, 
and  Nova  Scotia  have' prepared  special  publications  deal- 
ing with  the  problem  of  school-houses  for  the  one-teacher, 
t  ivo-teacher,  and  three-teacher  rural  and  village  schools. 

In  Germany,  France,  Scandinavia,  Denmark,  and 
Switzerland  the  teachers'  homes  are  as  much  a  part  of 
the  school  plant  as  are  the  classrooms.  They  are  either 
separate  cottages  or  a  suite  of  rooms  in  the  school  build- 
ing. In  England  it  has  been  the  custom  for  many  years 
to  erect  teachers'  villas  in  connection  with  rural  schools, 
and  these,  whether  on  a  combined  plan  or  erected  near 
the  schoolhouses,  have  well  paid  the  communities  for 
their  enterprise.  The  teacher's  influence  has  been 
broadened  and  strengthened  when  he  lives  in  a  modej 
dwelling  and  works  under  the  most  wholesome  condi- 
tions.8 In  Switzerland  the  country  schoolhouses  are  also 
homes  for  the  teachers.  The  German  rural  school  build- 
ing is  generally  of  two  stories,  the  upper  one  being  the 
master's  home.  In  Denmark  there  is  a  legal  require- 
ment that  every  school  shall  have  ample  housing  facilities. 
The  suites  are  built,  as  a  rule,  in  connection  with  the  main 
school  building,  using  either  the  second  floor  or  a  wing 
on  the  first  floor.  All  teachers  are  further  entitled  under 
the  law  to  a  garden.  These  gardens  supplement  the 
teachers'  incomes  and  are  used  as  experimental  plots  for 
the  school.  In  Norway  rural  teachers,  as  a  rule,  are 
supplied  with  a  house  and  sufficient  ground  for  a  garden 
and  the  pasturage  of  two  or  three  cows.*  The  school 
garden  is  used  to  show  by  "  intercultivation,"  i.e.  raising 


rPoght,   H.    W.      The    School    System   of   Ontario.        Bui.   1915, 

No.  32,  U.S.  Bureau  of  Education,  p.  28. 
"Ohallman,   S.A.       The  Rural   School  Plant,     p.  215. 
*  Anderson  D.  A.       The  School  System  of  Norway,     p.  70. 


114 

several  crops  simultaneously  on  the  same  lot,  how  much 
a  little  plot  of  ground  can  produce.  Seeds  and  plants 
are  furnished  the  children  free  of  charge  and  for  their 
labour  and  care  they  get  the  crops  they  raise.  The 
interest  displayed  by  the  children  reacts  favourably  upon 
the  parents.u 

Traditionally  the  teachers  in  the  rural  schools  of 
Eli  rope  are  men,  which  greatly  simplifies  the  housing 
problem.  We  have  to  turn  to  America  for  conditions 
similar  to  those  of  South  Africa.  "  If  a  greater  number 
of  the  teachers  (in  Canada)  were  married  many  of  the 
local  school  boards  might  be  induced  to  provide  a 
teacher's  residence  with  four  or  five  acres  attached;  but 
few  care  to  risk  it  when  their  chances  of  securing  the 
services  of  a  married  teacher  are  rather  slight.  A 
movement  looking  toward  the  provision  of  homes  for  the 
teachers  is,  however,  one  of  the  much  needed  develop- 
ments in  connection  with  rural  schools. "  v 

In  the  United  States,  while  recognising  that  teachers' 
homes  would  make  for  longer  tenure  and  greater  per- 
manency school  officials  have  had  to  face  difficulties  simi- 
lar to  those  of  Canada.  The  state  of  Washington 
started  the  movement  for  teachers'  homes  in  1905.  By 
1917  there  were  such  homes  in  25  of  the  states.  The 
tendency  is  to  construct  separate  cottages,  because  as 
Dresslar  says:  "a  teacher's  family  needs  privacy;  the 
school  children  require  freedom.  The  playground  should 
not  be  encroached  upon,  neither  should  the  sanitary 
appliances  be  used  in  common  by  the  school  and  the 
home."  w 

k:  The  Cape  Education  Department's  present  policy  is  opposed 
to  the  erection  of  residences  for  teachers,  as  such  residences 
have  been  found  to  be  a  fruitful  source  of  trouble.  In  the  past 
what  has  happened  is  that  a  married  man  appointed  as  teacher 
of  a  small  country  school  had  agitated  for  a  house  to  be  built  for 


tt  Pearson,  P.  H.       Schools  of  Scandinavia,  Finland  and  Holland. 

Bulletin  1919,  No.  29,  p.  11. 

T  Miller,  J.  C        Rural  Schools  in  Canada,     p.  66. 
^  Dresslar,  F.  B.  Rural  S.choolhouses  and  Grounds,    p.  122. 


115 

him.  This  has  been  done,  and  he  has  been  charged  rent  payable 
through  a  deduction  from  his  salary.  It  has  however  often 
happened  that  after  having  the  house  built  the  teacher  has 
obtained  promotion  or  transfer,  and  has  been  succeeded  by  an 
unmarried  man  or  even  an  unmarried  woman.  Such  teachers 
have  refused  to  take  occupation  of  the  residence,  preferring 
to  board  with  a  private  family;  and  the  Department  has  been 
faced  with  the  possibility  of  the  building  becoming  derelict. 
Occasionally  cases  arise  where  a  house  must  be  built;  but  the 
number  is  kept  as  small  as  possible."  x 

In  the  United  States  many  instructive  pamphlets  have 
been  written  on  the  school  grounds.  Ontario,  Canada, 
gives  specific  grants  for  the  improvement  of  school 
grounds  and  has  a  suggestive  booklet  on  the  "  Improve- 
ment of  School  Grounds/'  which  is  supplied  to  school 
boards  and  teachers  free  of  charge.  The  need  of  a 
definite  playground  has  also  been  recognised  in  the 
States.  One  of  the  greatest  defects  of  country  life  is 
the  lack  of  social  contacts  and  fellowship.  All  children 
love  to  play.  It  is  no  longer  maintained  that  children 
can  play  without  guidance.  Education  through  play 
has  become  a  vital  part  of  the  school  curriculum.  Play 
is  used '  as  part  o'f  the  school  work  not  only  for  its 
physical  but  also  for  its  social  and  mental  values.  The 
teacher  takes  a  part  in  the  children's  games  and  gives 
them  the  necessary  supervision.  The  following  pieces  of 
playground  equipment  are  in  use:  a  sandbox  for  the  little 
ones,  a  swing,  a  see-saw,  a  horizontal  bar,  a  slide  or  chute, 
a  giant's  stride,  parallel  bars,  the  rings,  climbing  ropes, 
and  in  addition  there  is  a  running-track  and  a  jumping- 
pit.y 

The  modern  school  library  occupies  a  very  important 
place  in  the  education  of  the  pupils  in  the  United  States. 
The  library  is  used  to  aid  the  schoolroom  work  at  all 
points.  It  provides  collateral  reading  on  all  subjects 
taught  in  the  school  and  makes  the  lessons  more  interest- 
better  from  the  Department,  4th  August,  1921. 
y  See :  Curtis  H.  S.  Play  and  Recreation  for  the  Open  Country. 
Boston.  Ginn  &  Co.  1914. 

The  Rural  Playground.  Univ.  of  North  Carolina.  Ext.  Bui.  Vol. 
I.  No.  6.     Nov.  16,  1921. 


116 

ing.  It  supplements  the  textbooks  and  laboratory  work. 
It  occupies  a  definite  place  in  teaching  by  the  project 
method  or  in  preparing  for  the  socialised  recitation.  It 
acquaints  the  pupil  with  a  permanent  means  of  self- 
education.  The  pupils',  self-activity  is  cultivated  and 
they  are  taught  to  dig  out  knowledge  for  themselves.  A 
whole  class  may  be  taken  into  the  library  for  making 
some  first-hand  study. 

7.     THE    ONE-TEACHER    SCHOOL. 

In  France  and  Germany  the  rural  schools  are  gener- 
ally located  in  small  villages.  The  teacher  of  the  one- 
room  school  is  over-burdened  by  the  large  number  of 
pupils.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  the  German  teacher  to 
have  more  than  100  pupils.  To  accommodate  so  many 
the  half-time  school  has  been  in  vogue  in  many  parts  of 
rural  Germany.  The  older  children  come  in  the  morning 
and  the  younger  ones  in  the  afternoon.  While  the  half- 
doy  school  is  ordinarily  practised  because  of  lack  of  room 
it  is  sometimes  adopted  also,  especially  during  the 
summer,  so  that  the  daily  labour  of  the  children  may  not 
be  unduly  interfered  with.z  The  extraneous  duties  of 
rural  teachers  in  France  and  Germany  is  another  griev- 
ance. The  French  teacher  for  example  also  acts  as 
secretary  to  the  mayor  of  the  hamlet.a 

In  the  United  States  there  are  roughly  210,000  one- 
teacher  rural  schools.  Many  of  these  schools  can  never 
be  converted  into  large  centralised  schools  for  topo- 
graphical and  other  reasons.  It  takes  an  exceptional 
teacher  to  make  the  most  of  the  one-teacher  school. 
Among  the  best  and  most  instructive  pieces  of  work  that 
have  been  done  in  the  one-teacher  rural  school  in  the 
States  is  that  of  Mrs.  Marie  Turner  Harvey  at  the 
Porter  Rural  School  near  Kirksville,  Missouri.1* 

z  Hughes,   R.   E.      Schools    at   Home    and     Abroad,   New   York, 

Button,  1902,  pp.  16,  17. 

a  Brereton,  C.     Rural   Schools  of  North- West  France,  p.  40. 
b  See :  Dewey,  Evelyn.     New  Schools  for  Old.  New  York,  Dutton, 

1919. 


117 

In  their  attempts  at  improving  the  one-teacher  rural 
schools  educators  in  the  United  States  have  insisted  that 
such  schools  should  have:— 

(1)  A  plant  standardized  as  to  light,  heat,  ventilation 
and  sanitation. 

(2)  Ample  provisions   for   teaching   the  industrial   arts 
subjects.     This  means   a   one-teacher  building  with 
several  rooms  and  sufficient  ground  for  laboratory 
experiments  in   agricultural   subjects ;   also  a  house 
for  the  teacher. 

(3)  A  teacher  in  charge  who  prefers  the  country  to  the 
city  and  is  trained  to  meet  the  problems  arising  in 
a  one-teacher  school. 

(4)  A  course  of  study  that  serves  the  peculiar  needs 
of  the  community.0 

In  those  States  in  which  the  small  school  district 
is  the  local  unit  a  one-teacher  school  may  occasionally 
have  one  pupil.  The  New  York  Rural  School  Survey 
revealed  the  fact  that  there  were  15  schools  with  an 
average  daily  attendance  of  1  pupil  and  885  schools  with 
5  or  less  pupils.  There  were  8,600  one-room  schools  in 
the  State.d  In  Alberta,  Canada,  a  school  is  established 
when  there  are  8  children  of  school  age.  The  other 
provinces  require  10,  12  and  20  children.  Itinerant 
teachers  are  still  used  in  the  sparsely-settled  districts  of 
Australia.  In  Queensland  1,809  children  were  thus 
educated  in  1920. e  The  problem  of  the  small  country 
schools  in  Western  Australia  is  very  pressing  and  every 
effort  is  being  made  to  reach  the  children  in  the  sparsely 
populated  areas.  Until  recently  a  full-time  government 
school  was  established  in  any  locality  where  a  regular 
attendance  of  not  less  than  10  children  between  the  ages 
of  6  and  14  was  assured.  If  the  attendance  fell  below, 
the  school  was  closed.  The  parents  were  then  urged  to 


c  Manual  of  Educational  Legislation.     U.S.  Bureau  of  Education 

Bulletin,  1919,  No.  4,  p.  29. 
d  Works,  G.A.  Rural  School  Survey  of  New  York  State.     Ithaca, 

N.Y.,  1922,  p.  218. 
e  Report  of  the   Sec.  for  Public  Instruction  for  the  year  1920, 

p.  7. 


118 

engage  a  private  instructor,  the  Department  of  Education 
sharing  the  expenses.  The  new  regulation,  issued  in  1916, 
increases  the  school  facilities  by  providing  that  the 
average  attendance  for  a  period  of  six  months  must  fall 
below  8  before  the  school  can  be  closed.f  The  Cape 
Province  has  gone  further  than  any  other  country  in 
establishing  a  farm  school  for  5  pupils.  The  compulsory 
full-time  legislation  up  to  the  age  of  16  is  also  higher 
here  than  in  other  countries  where  it  is  generally 
fourteen. 

8.     CONSOLIDATION  AND  TRANSPORTATION. 

There  are  now  about  12,000  consolidated  schools  in  the 
United  States.  The  greatest  progress  in  consolidalion 
has  been  made  in  Ohio,  Indiana.  Iowa,  Minnesota,  Wash- 
ington, Louisiana,  North  Dakota,  and  Colorado.  It  is 
estimated  by  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Education  that  170,000 
of  the  present  210,000  one-teacher  schools  can  ultimately 
be  consolidated  leaving  40,000  schools  in  mountainous 
and  sparsely-settled  sections  where  the  plan  will  be 
impracticable  for  many  years.  An  account  of  consoli- 
dation in  Iowa  is  given  as  a  typical  illustration. 

"  During  the  past  year,  two  types  of  schools  have  had  special 
development  in  the  State.  They  are  the  Consolidated  School 
and  the  Standard  One-room  School.  On  July  1,  1919,  we  had 
in  the  State  about  230  consolidated  schools.  Since  new  con- 
solidated schools  have  'been  voted  at  the  rate  of  one  for  every 
school  day,  until  now  we  have  407  districts  which  have  voted 
consolidation  and  are  in  process  of  organization  and  preparing" 
to  erect  new  buildings. 

These  consolidations  have  closed  280  one-room  rural  schools 
and  are  transporting  more  than  50,000  children.  More  than 
10,000  of  these  pupils  are  enrolled  in  and  taking  high  school 
work.  Formerly  these  50,000  pupils  were  without  the  privilege 
of  a  high  school  course  at  home.  At  commencement  this  year 
these  consolidated  schools  have  graduated  more  than  1,800 
four-year  high  school  students.  These  students  are  all  equipped 
tc  enter  college. 


f  U.S.  Bureau  of  Ed.  Bui.  1919,  No.  49.  Education  in  parts  of  the 
British    Empire,    p.   46. 


119 

The  course  of  study  in  consolidated  schools  carries,  in  addition 
to  the  regular  minimum  essentials  in  all  schools,  special  work 
in  agriculture,  domestic  science,  and  manual  training.  These* 
courses  are  prepared  especially  for  rural  school  life  and  home- 
making,  and  are  emphasized.  Most  of  these  consolidated 
schools  are  located  either  in  small  towns  or  in  purely  rural  dis- 
tricts. 

The  law  requires  that  each  school  have  at  least  5  acres  of 
ground  in  order  to  receive  State  aid.  This  ground  must  be  in 
one  plot  and  the  school -house  must  be  located  on  this  ground. 
Frequently  there  are  homes  for  the  teachers  and  a  barn  or 
garage  for  the  conveyances.  These  school  sites  are  laid!  out 
for  playground  activities,  including  baseball,  football,  and 
tennis.  A  part  of  the  ground  is  reserved  for  agricultural  ex- 
perimental work. 

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  P.  E.  McClenahan,  is  a 
strong  believer  in  the  maxim  that  the  school  is  for  the  com- 
munity. Therefore,  most  of  these  consolidated  schools  are  used 
as  community  centres.  Old-fashioned  spelling  contests,  debat- 
ing societies,  and  short  courses  for  all  the  people  are  held  in 
the  schools  as  well  as  lecture  courses. 

The  Standard  One-room  School  is  new  in  the  State  of  Iowa. 
The  law  provides  for  certain  minimum  standards,  which  shall 
be  met  before  the  school  shall  receive  State  aid.  These  require- 
ments are  in  regard  to  the  building,  the  equipment,  and  qualifi- 
cations of  the  teacher. 

The  school  cannot  be  standardized  unless  it  has  at  least  10 
pupils,  a  teacher  with  first-grade  certificate,  and  a  proper  build- 
ing with  minimum  equipment. 

Iowa  still  has  approximately  11,000  one-room  rural  schools.. 
Of  this  number,  700  only  have  been  standardized.  "g 

The  New  England  section  of  States  centralises  its 
rural  schools  more  generally  by  closing  unnecessary 
small  schools  and  conveying  the  children  at  public 
expense  to  adjoining  village  schools. 

The  Historical  Statistical  Survey  of  Education  in 
Canada  for  1921  reports  considerable  progress  in  consoli- 
dation. In  British  Columbia  there  were  168  graded 
departments  as  the  result  of  centralisation.  In  Manitoba 
there  were  101  consolidated  schools  in  operation  in  1919. 
In  Alberta  the  number  of  consolidations  was  63.  Saskat- 


gHon.  W.  L.  Harding,  Governor  of  Iowa.  Remaking  Country 
Schools  in  Iowa.  The  American  Review  of  Reviews. 
August,  .1920. 


120 

ehewan  had  28  consolidated  districts,  Quebec  12  consoli- 
dated schools,  New  Brunswick  5,  and  Ontario  l.h 

In  the  Cape  Province,  the  present  position  is  as 
follows  :— 

"  The  average  life  of  a  country  school  hi  the  Cape  Province 
is  very  short;  the  last  investigation  on  the  subject,  undertaken 
about  5  years  ago,  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  average  life 
of  a  country  school  was  about  3  years.  When  the  Department 
of  Education  initiated  its  centralization  policy  about  5  years 
ago,  it  pressed  not  so  much  for  consolidation  of  existing  schools 
as  for  the  prevention  of  unnecessary  new  schools.  No  school 
is  established  in  country  districts  unless  it  is  at  least  6  miles 
away  from  the  nearest  existing  school,  or  unless  natural  features 
prevent  the  attendance  of  the  pupils  proposed  to  be  provided 
for  at  the  nearest  existing  school.  The  statistics  for  the  quarter 
ended  31st  March,  1921,  show  that  the  number  of  pupils  under 
Boards  had  increased  by  nearly  20,000  but  that  the  number  of 
schools  had  decreased  by  207  from  what  they  were  at  the  same 
time  of  the  year  1917.  These  figures  are  significant  of  the 
movement  that  is  going  on  in  the  country  towards  centralization 
of  educational  facilities."1 

The  Rev.  J.  R.  Albertyn  of  Willowinore  addressing  the 
Congress1  of  the  Zuid  Afrikaanse  Onderwijzers  Unie  at 
Worcester,  on  21st  Dec.  1921,  quoted  the  example  of 
Willowmore  where  10  years  ago  they  had  40  schools  for 
750  children  and  to-day  30  schools  for  1,100  children. 
This  has  been  achieved  by  means  of  church  boarding 
houses  in  connection  with  the  larger  schools.  He  put 
in  a  plea  for  the  resurrection  of  the  old  district  boarding 
schools.  The  great  boarding  houses  in  connection  with 
the  schools  in  the  towns  and  cities  do  not  offer  the  best 
solution  to  the  problem  as  the  parents'  sense  of  responsi- 
bility is  lost  and  the  children  are  generally  not  even  able 
to  get  home  for  the  week-ends.  The  Educational  Gazette 
Statistical  Number  for  the  first  quarter  of  1921.  reveals 
the  fact  that  the  30  rural  schools  mentioned  above  con- 
sisted of  1  five-teacher,  5  two-teacher,  18  one-teacher  and 


h  Dominion  Bureau  of   Statistics.     Education   Statistics   Branch. 

Historical   Statistical    Survey   of  Education   in   Canada, 

Ottawa,  1921. 
1  Letter  from  the  Department.     4th  August,  1921. 


0  farm  schools.  This  shows  how  far  school  boards  are 
from  being  able  to  get  rid  of  the  farm  and  one-teacher 
schools. 

The  plan  of  allowing  parents  or  guardians  a  certain 
amount  per  day  for  providing  conveyances  for  their  own 
children  is  in  operation  in  the  Cape  Province,  and  to 
a  certain  extent  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States.3 
It  is  probably  the  only  plan  feasible  in  sparsely-settled 
districts,  and  where  roads  are  very  poor.  The  amount 
allowed  parents  in  the  Cape  Province  is  sixpence  per 
child  per  day.  In  South  Dakota,  Wisconsin,  and  a  few 
other  States  it  varies  from  10  cents  per  child  per  day  to 
25  cents,  the  amount  depending  upon  the  distance  from 
the  home  to  the  school.  Allowance  is  made  only  for  the 
actual  number  of  days  attended.  The  principal  advan- 
tage of  this  plan  is  that  children  ride  from  their  homes 
to  the  school  by  the  most  direct  route  and,  as  a  rule,  in 
less  time  than  would  be  taken  by  a  school  wagon.  One 
of  the  principal  disadvantages  of  this  plan  is  the  greater 
expense,  not  to  the  school  but  to  the  school  patrons.  A 
large  amount  must  be  invested  in  horses  and  vehicles,  and 
stabling  and  feed  for  the  horses  must  be  provided.  If 
the  children  themselves  do  the  driving  the  horse  is  not 
available  for  other  work  on  school-days.  Another  dis- 
advantage is  that  private  conveyance  does  not  assure  the 
regularity  of  attendance  and  the  freedom  from  tardiness 
resulting  from  the  use  of  transportation  wagons  or  of 
railroads.'*  In  Minnesota  state  aid  is  withheld  from 
schools  that  use  individual  transportation, 

About  6  miles  is  the  usual  limit  of  horse  and  wagon 
transportation  in  the  United  States.  In  California, 
where  conditions  of  climate  are  most  like  those  in  South 
Africa,  the  school  automobiles  are  carrying  children  20 
miles.  Motor  transportation  is  quicker,  equally  reliable, 
and  usually  more  economical.  The  chief  advantage  lies 
in  the  quickness  of  the  service.  Children  are  on  the 
road  about  half  as  long  as  when  carried  in  wagons.  It 


3  Rapeer,  L.  W.     The  Consolidated  Rural  School      p.  215. 
*Ibid  p.  21G 


122 

is  usual  for  each  motor-driven  car  in  Preble  County : 
Ohio,  to  make  two  trips — a  long  one  first  and  then  a  short 
trip.  In  the  evening  the  children  living  on  the  short 
route  are  returned  home  first,  and  those  on  the  long 
route  next.  All  conveyances  are  owned  and  operated 
by  the  school  district.1 

9.     CONTINUATION  SCHOOLS,  PART-TIME  EDUCATION  AND 
EXTENSION  TEACHING. 

Denmark  has  made  the  best  contribution  to  the  world 
of  how  to  continue  the  in-school  education  of  the  agricul- 
tural population.  This  special  contribution  is  the  folk 
high  school,  which  is  essentially  a  school  for  young  people 
from  18  to  25  years  of  age,  with  older  people  attending 
also.  At  about  the  age  of  14  the  rural  pupil  leaves  the 
elementary  school  to  become  an  employee  on  a  farm. 
Then  at  the  age  of  18,  or  later,  he  or  she  may  enter  a 
folk  high  school.  Almost  without  exception  the  folk 
high  schools  are  located  in  the  open  country.  The 
students  generally  board  at  the  institution  while  taking 
the  courses.  Two  courses  of  study  are  offered;  a  five 
months'  course  in  winter  for  young  men  and  a  three 
months'  course  in  summer  for  young  women.  The 
Danish  folk  high  school  is  a  school  of  general  culture  not 
a  vocational  school.  "Its  chief  purpose  is  to  open  the 
eyes  of  its  students  to  the  possibilities  for  a  richer, 
happier,  more  satisfactory  life  in  the  performance  of  the 
tasks  with  which  they  are  already  familiar." m  These 
schools  are  founded  by  private  or  community  endeavour, 
later  they  are  accredited  by  the  State  and  receive  State 
aid.  An  inspector  visits  them  and  reports  on  the  work. 
The  Government  does  not  interfere  with  the  arrange- 
ment of  subjects,  courses,  or  hours,  being  satisfied  if 
there  are  devoted  teachers  and  authorities. 


Rapeer,  L.W.       The  Consolidated  Rural  School,     p.  230. 
Friend.    L.    L.      The    Folk    High    Schools    of    Denmark.      U.S. 
Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin,  1914,  Xo.  5,  p.  12. 


123 

The  Danish  folk  high  schools  have  been  transplanted 
into  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Finland.  The  chief  Swedish 
modification  of  the  Danish  system  of  folk  high  school 
lies  in  the  addition  of  fully  equipped  agricultural  depart- 
ments to  most  of  the  schools.  The  Swedes  prefer  to 
bring  all  the  schools  under  one  administration,  instead  of 
having  separate  folk  high  schools  and  agricultural 
schools.  There  are  no  examinations,  either  entrance  or 
final. 

The  folk  high  schools  in  Finland  are  founded,  owned 
and  maintained  by  local  organizations,  but  receive  no 
state  grant  for  their  support  nor  aid  for  students.  The 
Odense  Husmandsskole  (special  agricultural  schools  for 
small  holders)  in  Denmark  gives  long  and  short  courses 
for  young  farmers  with  special  application  to  small  hold 
ings.  Of  great  interest  are  the  number  of  short  courses 
(2  weeks  in  length)  for  men  and  women,  young  and  old, 
living  on  the  farm.  The  people  come  to  the  school  with 
their  problems  and  stay  during  the  days  or  weeks  neces- 
sary to  obtain  the  full  aid  of  the  school.  The  studies 
are  made  to  fit  the  exact  needs  of  those  who  seek  help. 

Short  courses  for  the  whole  community  have  been 
started  in  the  rural  high  schools  of  Minnesota.  These 
schools  make  it  possible  for  young  people  who  for  good 
reasons  cannot  attend  school  regularly  to  cake  valuable 
short  courses  in  English,  farm  arithmetic  arid  accounts* 
civil  government  and  farm  sanitation,  agriculture,  cook- 
ing, sewing,  carpentry,  forge  work,  and  letter  writing. 
The  instructor  who  lias  charge  of  agriculture  also  acts 
as  an  adviser  to  the  entire  farming  communify.  Here  it 
has  been  recognized  that  education  is  a  life  process,  and 
that  all  the  educative  machinery  of  the  State  should  be 
at  the  disposal  of  the  public  at  all  times  to  assist  in  the 
solving  of  real  problems.  There  are  volunteer  continua 
tion  schools  in  Cherokee  County,  Iowa,  in  which  each 
pupil  begins  his  work  where  he  discontinued  it  iu  the 
district  school.  In  the  South  there  are  the  so-called 
"  Moonlight ??  or  "  Adult7'  schools  for  the  elimination  of 
adult  illiteracy.  These  are  night  schools  held  on  moon 


124 

light  evenings  in  the  public  school-houses  and  conducted 
usually  by  the  regular  teachers.11 

In  1914  the  Smith-Lever  Act  was  passed  by  the 
Federal  Government  in  the  United  States  making  funds 
available  for  extension  teaching  in  agriculture  and 
home  economics.  By  this  means  county  agents  working 
with  men,  home  demonstration  agents  working  with 
women,  and  boys  and  girls  Club  agents  working  with 
children  have  been  able  to  carry  the  necessary  knowledge 
to  the  homes  and  farms. 

"  A  great  public  service  organization  has  been  created.  The 
effect  of  this  great  movement  can  not  be  estimated.  In  the 
South,  where  it  has  been  the  longest  in  operation,  the  improve- 
ment in  agriculture  is  most  noticeable.  Thousands  of  community 
organizations  are  drawing  together  for  better  rural  life,  hundred 
of  thousands  of  demonstrations  are  conducted  each  year  and  the 
actual  number  of  persons  reached  already  mounts  into  the  mil- 
lions. The  wastes  are  being  stopped,  the  bad  practices  remedied, 
the  diseases  eradicated,  the  fertility  of  the  soil  conserved  and 
built  up,  the  marketing  systems  improved,  and  country  life  is 
beginning  to  take  on  an  air  of  interest  and  attractiveness  which 
will  hold  its  people  and  draw  others  to  the  great  life  of  this 
foundation  calling  of  the  people."0 

Some  of  the  agricultural  departments  of  secondary 
schools  are  offering  part-time  instruction  in  agriculture 
to  boys  between  the  ages  of  16  and  21  in  long  or  short 
courses.  They  also  offer  short  unit  courses  to  adult 
farmers  with  meetings  once  or  twice  a  week.  The 
courses  are  very  short  and  the  method  of  instruction  is 
especially  adapted  to  adults.  The  agricultural  teacher 
is  usually  assisted  by  county  agents,  experts  from  the 
agricultural  colleges  and  others. 

No  provision  has  been  made  by  the  Education  Depart- 
ment of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  for:  (1)  the  elimination 
of  rural  adult  illiteracy,  (2)  continuation  schools  for 
rural  people  beyond  ordinary  school  age,  (3)  part-time 
schools  for  rural  people  who  must  work  for  a  livelihood, 
or  (4)  educational  extension  courses  for  young  and  old. 
The  work  done  by  the  Agricultural  Department  through 
its  Agricultural  Schools  has  already  been  mentioned. 

*  Foght,  H.  W.     The  Rural  Teacher  and  his  Work.     p.  200. 
°Phelan,   J.     Readings  in  Rural   Sociology,   p.   38S. 


125 


V.     RECOMMENDATIONS  AND   SUGGESTED 
RECONSTRUCTION. 

1.     ADMINISTRATION. 

We  in  the  Cape  Province  believe  that  a  strong  central 
authority  represents  the  sounder  policy  in  educational 
administration.  Yet  we  readily  concede  the  dangers  ac- 
companying a  highly  centralised  state  system  of  control. 
These  include:  (1)  a  deadenirig  uniformity,  (2)  little 
opportunity  for  local  initiative,  (3)  too  much  authority' 
in  one  person  or  one  body,  giving  rise  to  an  autocracy 
or  bureaucracy,  (4)  the  introduction  of  politics  into 
education,  (5)  the  neglect  of  local  adjustments,  leading 
to  an  educational  system  out  of  touch  with  the  people 
and  one  in  which  they  have  no  interest,  because  it  does 
not  supply  their  real  needs,  and  finally,  ((>)  state 
examinations  with  their  accompanying  evils.  Against 
all  these  evils  our  system  has  to  be  carefully  guarded. 
As  the  population  increases  and  our  educational  burden 
becomes  heavier  a  greater  decentralisation  will  no  doubt 
follow. 

2.     INSPECTION   AND    SUPERVISION. 

If  the  inspecting  staff  is  to  secure  the  confidence  and 
the  professional  support  of  the  teachers  its  members 
must  be  men  of  experience  and  professionally  well 
trained.  It  is  not  too  much  to  demand  that  they  hold 
at  least  the  Bachelor's  degree  and  the  highest  profes 
sional  certificate  granted  by  the  province,  and  further- 
more that  they  shall  have  had  successful  experience  in 
the  schools  of  the  province. 

The  inspectors   are  expected  to  keep  abreast  of  the 
latest  educational   thought.     Definite   provision    should 
be  made  for  them  to  keei)  educationally  alert  and  pro- 
fessionally up-to-date.        For   this  purpose  they   should, 
have  access  to  the  best  educational  literature  and  should 


126 

be  granted  regular  leaves  of  absence  for  professional 
study  and  investigation.  If  the  best  teachers  are  to  be 
attracted  to  the  inspectorship  the  salary  must  be  made 
•adequate  arid  large  enough  to  compensate  for  the  incon- 
venience endured  in  travelling.  Certainly  it  is  not  wise 
to  pay  the  inspectors  less  salary  than  the  principals 
whose  schools  they  inspect. 

The  schools  of  the  Cape  Province  are  inspected,  not 
supervised.  Professional  supervision  as  now  understood 
in  America  has  little  place  in  the  present  school  system. 
The  conspicuous  absence  of  expert  supervision  in  the 
Cape  Province  calls  for  a  somewhat  more  lengthy  treat- 
ment of  the  subject.  The  first  steps  toward  school  super- 
vision have  just  been  taken  through  the  provision  that 
individual  inspection,  except  in  small  schools  or  where 
several  classes  are  grouped  under  one  teacher,  is  to  be 
replaced  by  class  inspection,  if  by  means  of  a  continuous 
record  of  good  work  and  other  trustworthy  evidence  of 
efficiency  the  inspector  is  satisfied  that  the  school  is 
well  conducted.  In  the  larger  schools  the  principals  are 
supposed  to  give  some  of  their  time  to  supervision.  Real 
supervision  will  be  new  to  many  principals  and  they 
will  have  to  be  instructed  therein.  They  not  infrequently 
are  reluctant  to  assume  the  responsibilities  of  classroom 
supervision,  because  they  do  not  wish  to  offend,  or  seem 
to  interfere  with  the  freedom  of  their  assistants,  or 
because  they  lack  the  time  or  feel  themselves  incompetent. 
But  skilful  supervision  can  be  made  a  great  force  for 
stimulating  and  encouraging  initiative  on  the  part  of 
ihe  teachers,  and  for  creating  a  mutual  spirit  of  co- 
operation through  which  the  assistants  and  principal 
may  work  together  for  the  improvement  of  instruction 
and  school  betterment. 

Expert  supervision  has  gradually  to  replace  inspec- 
tion. The  vigorous  imposition  of  a  uniform  course  of 
study  and  written  examinations  for  promotion  stifle  any 
other  teaching  purpose  than  that  of  preparing  for  the 
examinations  which  give  the  teacher  reputable  status  in 
his  community  or  deprives  him  of  it. 


The  inspector  is  necessarily  a  critic  and  a  judge.  He 
has  in  the  past  got  into  th£  habit  of  "  laying  down  the 
law"  in  his  requirements.  Now  a  new  spirit  must 
permeate  the  function  of  the  inspector.  He  must  become 
a  supervisor  and  it  is  a  question  how  quickly  and  how 
completely  he  can  suit  himself  to  the  new  requirements. 

The  primary  requirement  of  a  supervisor  is  to  make 
himself  thoroughly  friendly.  He  must  enter  the  class- 
room not  as  a  faultfinder,  critic  or  dictator,  but  as  a  co- 
labourer,  a  sympathetic  friend  and  helper.  The  visit  of 
the  supervisor  should  not  be  feared  (as  that  of  the  in- 
spector). He  should  win  the  respect  and  love  of  the 
pupils  and  the  confidence  of  the  teachers.  The  teacher 
must  be  led  to  desire  to  be  a  better  teacher.  The  super- 
visor should  refrain  from  assuming  that  the  teacher  is 
the  only  one  to  take  the  learning  attitude.  He  should 
adopt  the  learning  attitude  himself  and  be  a  persistent 
student  of  improved  methods  of  teaching.  He  should 
also  have  a  ready  command  of  the  principles  of  teaching 
which  constitute  the  standards  of  judgment  in  his  field. 

The  great  need  for  supervision  of  the  one-teacher 
rural  schools  has  been  referred  to  on  page  95.  Educa- 
tionists in  the  United  States  are  generally  agreed  that 
rural  school  conditions  can  be  considerably  improved 
by  means  of  professional  supervision.  In  this  connection 
two  questions  may  be  raised:  (1)  Is  rural  school  super- 
vision worth  its  cost?  and  (2)  Is  supervision  necessary 
where  you  have  normal  school  graduates?  Dr.  M.  S. 
Pittman's  investigation  with  the  zone  plan  of  supervision 
in  rural  schools  has  given  a  satisfactory  answer  to  the 
first  question.15  As  for  the  second,  the  better  trained 
a  teacher  is  the  more  she  can  profit  by  supervision. 
Moreover  even  the  normal  school  graduate  is  in  need  of 
supervision,  for  her  teaching  is  far  from  perfect.  She 
knows  much  theory,  but  has  only  limited  technical  skill. 
She  finds  conditions  very  different  from  those  to  which 
she  has  been  accustomed.  There  are  all  sorts  of  new 


See  Pittman,  M.   S.     The  Value  of   School   Supervision.  Balti- 
more. Warwick  and  York  Inc.,  1921. 


12S 

situations  to  be  met.    If  not  helped  she  soon  reverts  and 
teaches  as  she  herself  was  taught. 

"  Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  laid  on  the  importance  of 
conserving  and  preserving  the  visions,  ideals,  enthusiasms, 
hopes  and  plans,  which  the  young  teacher  brings  to  her  work 
The  difficulties  of  the  daily  routine  threaten  these  on  every 
side.  It  is  quite  common  to  find  a  normal  school  graduate  in 
a  country  school  teaching  as  formally,  mechanically,  and  life- 
lessly as  she  herself  was  taught  in  the  same  kind  of  school. 
Her  theories  have  proved  difficult  of  application,  apparently  un- 
workable, her  ideals  have  failed  to  square  up  with  grim  reality, 
and  she  has  cast  them  aside  entirely.  The  supervisor's  task  is 
to  help  her  in  the  practical  manipulation  of  the  situation  that 
will  make  her  ideals  possible." — (Dr.  Fannie  W.  Dunn,  "  Skill  in 
Supervision,"  Mimeographed  material.) 

For  the  supervisors  (as  well  as  the  inspectors)  and 
the  training  colleges  to  keep  in  constant  touch  is  a  dis- 
tinct advantage.  In  order  to  render  the  most  efficient 
service  there  should  be  an  active  co-operation  between 
the  two.  The  training  college  staff,  through  direct  con- 
tact with  the  field  can  modify  and  adapt  courses  so 
as  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  public  schools.  The  super- 
visor, by  keeping  in  close  touch  with  the  training  college, 
can  have  a  definite  idea  as  to  how  and  where  to 
begin  follow-up  work  with  its  graduates.  The  super- 
visor should  be  able  to  go  to  the  training  college  for 
expert  advice,  and  the  training  college  should  call  in 
the  help  of  the  supervisor  in  planning  the  rural  school 
practice  of  its  students.  It  is  proposed  that  the  rural 
school  supervisor  be  also  a  member  of  the  training  col- 
lege staff. 

The  supervisors  will  have  to  be  specially  trained  for 
their  work.  Many  more  abilities  are  required  of  the 
supervisor  than  of  the  inspector.  Where  rural  school 
supervision  is  introduced  for  the  first  time,  as  well  as 
special  rural  teacher  preparation,  the  most  economical 
procedure,  which  may  also  yield  the  best  results,  will 
be  to  let  the  rural  instructors  of  the  training  colleges 
also  act  as  rural  supervisors. 

The  supervisor  should  handle  little  or  nothing  of  an 
administrative  character.  He  should  be  responsible  for 
only  such  reports  and  records  as  will  be  of  direct  as- 


120 

sistance  in  the  improvement  of  instruction.  Two  report 
forms  are  suggested,  (1)  as  exemplified  by  the  helping 
teacher's  report  blank  from  the  New  Jersey,  Depart- 
ment of  Public  Instruction,  which  makes  provision  for 
entries  under  the  following  heads : 

1.  Strong  points  to  be  further  .developed  and  encouraged  in 
teacher  and  pupils. 

2.  Points  in  which  teacher  needs  help. 

3.  Constructive  criticism  given   and   results  of  same  upon 
teacher  and  pupils. 

4.  Work  observed. 

r>.      Principles  and  methods  of  teaching  to  be  taken  up   at 
conference  with  teacher  or  at  teachers'  meetings. 

6.  Physical  condition  of  school  room,  equipment  and  toilets. 

7.  Enrolment  and   attendance. 

8.  Additional  observation  and  notes. 

and  (2)  a  quarterly  (or  monthly)  report  form,  being  a 
simplification  of  the  State  of  Wisconsin  annual  report 
required  from  supervising  teachers  and  showing  the 
nature  of  their  services  and  expenses. 

3.     RURAL  SCHOOL  TEACHERS. 

The  rural  child  is  entitled  to  as  well  trained  a  teacher 
as  the  urban  child.  Now,  however,  the  positions  in  thte 
country  are  filled  by  teachers  with  the  least  training. 
The  towns  are  drawing  the  best  trained  and  most  success- 
ful teachers  leaving  to  the  country  the  poorly  educated 
and  inexperienced.  The  many  attractions  of  town  life, 
the  greater  ease  of  the  work  in  a  graded  school,  the  better 
buildings,  the  better  equipment  and  the  better  salaries 
have  made  it  easy  for  the  town  to  do  this. 

The  rural  teacher  should  be  as  good  a  teacher  as  one 
doing  the  same  work  anywhere  else.  He  must  be  an 
unusually  good  manager.  He  must  be  socially-minded 
and  rurally-minded,  in  order  to  tie  up  the  school  and  the 
community,  and  he  must  have  had  special  courses  with 
special  emphasis  on  country  requirements. 

"Rural  school  teaching  actually  demands  a  higher  grade  of 
teaching  efficiency  than  any  other  branch  of  public  school  ser- 
vice: the  problems  of  successful  organization  and  instruction  are 
more  varied  and  more  difficult;  the  range  of  subject-matter  in 


130 

which  the  teacher  should  be  *  letter  perfect '  is  wider ;  super- 
vision is  less  frequent  and  usually  less  competent:  and  the 
responsibilities  of  the  teacher  for  community  leadership  are  much 
heavier."*1 

This  means  offering  a  special  compensation  to  teachers 
who  undertake  to  remain  in  this  more  responsible  work. 

4.     RURAL  TEACHER  PREPARATION. 

It  is  proposed  that  the  rural  teacher's  requirements 
should  gradually  be  raised  so  that  two  years  of  profes 
sional  work  beyond  the  high  school  is  the  minimum  of 
preparation  for  the  serious  responsibilities  of  rural 
school  teaching. 

The  great  need  and  the  many  problems  in  the  rural 
field  call  for  specialised  preparation  of  rural  school 
teachers. 

It  is  proposed  that  two  instructors  be  employed  on 
the  staff  of  such  normal  schools  as  are  in  a  position  to 
give  rural  school  practice,  for  the  purpose  of  (1)  prepar- 
ing teachers  for  the  one-teacher  rural  schools,  (2)  pro- 
viding professional  help  for  rural  teachers  in  service, 
(3)  developing  leadership  for  rural  education,  and  (4) 
encouraging  productive  scholarship  in  the  field  of  rural 
education. 

The  following  principles  involved  in  the  preparation 
of  rural  teachers  were  stated  by  Professor  Mabel  Carney 
before  the  N.E.A.  Chicago  meeting,  February  27,  1919  :— 

1.  Rural  education  is  but  a  phase  or  specialization  of  general 
education  and  rural  teacher  preparation  but  a  specializa- 
tion of  teacher  preparation  in  general.  From  this  it 
follows : 

(a)  That  in  All  matters  of  departmental  organization, 
curriculum,  practice  teaching,  and  extension  acti- 
vities, there  should  be  some  differentiation  in  the 
preparation  of  rural  teachers,  but  only  enough  to 
emphasize  the  work  and  make  it  meet  the  charac- 
teristic needs  of  country  schools  and  rural  com- 
munity life. 

q  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching.  Bulle- 
tin No.  14,  1920,  p.  129. 


131 

(b)  That  separate  normal  schools  devoted  exclusively 
to  the  preparation  of  rural  teachers  are  undesirable 
and  unwarranted. 

"2.  All  courses  and  activities  designed  for  the  preparation 
of  rural  teachers  should  be  organized  on  a  functional  or 
pragmatic  basis.  That  is,  all  the  instruction  given 
should  focus  directly  on  the  actual  task  of  country 
school  teaching. 

o.  Practice  teaching  should  be  regarded  as  the  most  im- 
portant activity  of  the  training  course.  It  should 
motivate  most  of  the  instruction  in  subject-matter  and 
teaching  technique.  Extensive  instead  of  intensive 
practice  is  advised  as  conforming  more  closely  to  the 
laws  of  habit  formation.  A  careful  gradation  of  practice 
teaching  is  desirable.  Six  stages  are  recommended:  (1) 
observation,  (2)  participation,  (3)  group  teaching,  (4) 
room  teaching  of  an  individual  grade,  (5)  rural  school 
practice  under  superior  conditions,  (6)  rural  school  prac- 
tice under  general  or  typical  conditions.  This  last  is 
absolutely  essential  in  the  preparation  of  a  country 
1  teacher. 

4.  Close  field  contact  and  experience  in  country  community 

life  is  essential  during  the  period  of  preparation. 

5.  The    follow-up    and  study    of    graduates  by  all  teacher 

training  agencies  is  necessary  as  a  means  of  stimulation 
and  growth  for  both  graduates  and  teaching  staff.'* 

**  It  is  a  well  established  principle  of  vocational  pedagogy  that 
the  best  method  of  imparting  both  the  skill  and  the  technical 
knowledge  needed  in  any  occupation  is  through  actual  participa- 
tion by  the  candidate  in  the  vocation  being  learned.  If  the 
normal  school  accepts  this  principle  then  it  must  make  practice 
teaching  the  heart  and  core  of  its  professional  work."r 

Every  normal  school  which  fits  teachers  for  rural 
work  should  maintain  a  demonstration  country  school 
within  comparatively  easy  distance. 

The  normal  school  should  undertake  enough  extension 
activities  to  keep  in  close  contact  with  the  field  needs, 
because  "  a  person  can  scarcely  hope  to  qualify  as  a  guide 
for  teachers  of  children  in  public  schools  without  first- 


:  Wilkinson,  W.  A.  Functions  £  Organization  of  Practice  Teach- 
ing in  State  Normal  Schools.  Educational  Administration 
and  Supervision.  June,  1918. 


hand  and  continuous  experience  with  the  conditions  and 
problems  which  he  is  fitting  his  students  to  face."8 

The  extension  activities  should  be  of  two  kinds:  (1) 
Those  designed  to  learn  the  conditions  in  the  field  by 
visiting  rural  schools  and  making  rural  school  surveys. 
(2)  Those  planned  to  assist  teachers  in  service  through 
(a)  correspondence,  and  the  supply  of  educational 
material  and  professional  books,  (b)  lectures  for  the 
rural  communities'  (c)  summer  school  courses,  and 
fd)  rural  school  supervision. 

It  is  proposed  that  the  two  rural  instructors  thus 
employed  be  a  man  and  a  woman  and  that  they  also  act 
alternately  for  six  months  as  rural  supervisors.  This 
proposal  is  made  especially  with  a  view  to  economy. 

5.     COURSES  OF  STUDY. 

The  present  courses  of  study  as  published  in  the 
Education  Gazettes  of  the  20th  February,  1919,  and  the 
18th  March,  1920,  may  be  criticised  as  follows:  (1) 
They  are  only  a  mere  listing  of  topics  to  be  treated,  and 
(2)  they  have  evidently  been  drawn  up  with  a  view  to 
examination.  Few,  if  any,  helpful  suggestions  were 
offered  with  them.  The  Department  has  since  been 
publishing  a  series  of  memoranda  on  the  teaching  of 
elementary  school  subjects  for  the  guidance  of  teachers. 
The  next  step  will  have  to  be  to  incorporate  these  in 
their  proper  place  in  the  course  of  study.  The  teachers 
of  the  elementary  schools  have  been  given  greater  free- 
ilftm  m  planning  their  work.  This  serves  to  accentuate 
the  urgent  need  lor  help  from  expert  supervisors. 

At  present  the  outstanding  aim  in  teaching  the  various 
subjects  in  their  particular  phases  in  the  elementary  and 
secondary  schools  is  the  passing  of  the  examinations  for 
which  they  have  been  drawn  up.  It  is  feared  that  there 
is  prevalent  a  slavish  following  of  syllabi  and  prescribed 
text-books  with  no  local  adaptations.  A  careful  analysis 


•  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching.     Bulle- 
'  tin  No.  14.  1920,  p.  1.05. 


133 

will  have  to  be  made  of  the  purposes  and  objectives  to 
be  attained  in  teaching  the  various  subjects  or  elements 
ol'  subject  matter,  and  the  curricula  then  revised  in  the 
light  of  these. 

In  the  reconstruction  of  the  curricula  more  attention 
will  have  to  be  paid  to  (1)  life  situations,  ^(2)  child 
activities,  interests  and  needs,  (3)  local  educational  re- 
sources and  needs,  and  (4)  since  the  elementary  school 
curriculum  is  overcrowded,  to  minimum  essentials  and 
economy  of  time  in  education  as  illustrated  by  the 
Fourteenth,  Sixteenth  and  Eighteenth  Yearbooks  of  the 
National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education.1 

It  is  proposed  that  a  special  elementary  school  curri- 
culum be  drawn  up  suited  to  rural  school  conditions 
and  the  needs  of  the  children.  In  drawing  up  the  rural 
elementary  school  course  the  rural  teachers,  inspectors, 
supervisors,  and  all  concerned  should  co-operate.  The 
results  of  research  and  experience  should  be  incorporated 
from  time  to  time.  The  absolute  necessity  that  rural 
school  supervisors  help  teachers  in  adapting  the  course 
of  study,  in  improving  it,  and  in  carrying  on  investiga- 
tions cannot  be  over-emphasised.  The  purpose  of 
elementary  education  is  the  same  for  all,  but  "  because 
a  rural  child's  experiences  and  environment  are  different 
from  those  of  urban  children,  the  rural  curriculum  must 
differ  from  the  curriculum  for  city  schools.  To  reach 
the  common  goal,  rural  and  urban  children  travel  dif- 
ferent roads."?u  Since  the  rural  teachers  get.very  little 
outside  aid  the  curriculum  for  the  rural  schools  should 
be  particularly  rich  in  suggestions  for  their  guidance. 

The  teacher  of  the  one-teacher  rural  school  must  not 
only  be  told  wbat  to  teach  and  how  to  teach  it,  but 
the  planning  of  the  work  will  have  to  be  shown.  To  be 
best  suited  to  the  one-teacher  rural  school  conditions  the 


t  University  of  Chicago  Press  1915,  1917  and  Public  School 
Publishing  Co.,  Bloomington,  Illinois,  1919. 

u  Works.  G.  A.  Rural  School  Survey  of  New  York  State.  Ithaca. 
N.Y.  1922.  p.  75. 


134 

work  will  have  to  be  outlined  not  by  standards  but  for 
groups. 

The  rural  teacher  must  still  make  such  adaptations 
in  the  rural  course  of  study  as  are  necessary  to  meet 
the  local  needs  and  interests.  She  should  build  on  the 
past  experience  of  the  pupils,  making  the  best  use  of  the 
local  environment  and  supplementing  what  it  lacks  in 
every  way  possible.  In  general  the  rural  environment 
will  affect  rural  elementary  education  in  three  ways. 

(1)  Since  the  education  of  any  child  must  be  in  terms 
of  his   experience,   the   approach   to   any   desirable 
experience  will  be  different  for  the  rural  child  from 
that  of  the  urban  child. 

(2)  TKe  rural  school  must  use  the  local  educational  re- 
sources to  the  fullest  extent. 

(3)  The  rural  school  must  supplement  its  environment 
with  reference  to  the  "  lacks "  or  "  needs "  of  rural 
life  in  general  and  to  its  own  community  in  parti- 
cular/ 

The  junior  high  school  plan  of  organisation  in  the 
United  Slates  has  many  suggestive  features  to  offer  for 
re-organising  the  work  in  the  secondary  schools  of  the 
Cape  Province,w 

We  shall  treat  here  only  the  two  subjects,  manual 
training  and  agriculture,  which  are  considered  as  be- 
longing particularly  to  the  rural  course. 

There  has  been  considerable  dissatisfaction  for  some 
time  with  the  manual  training  courses  (needlework  for 
girls,  and  woodwork  for  boys)  of  the  elementary  school 
syllabus  in  the  Cape  Province.  These  courses,  especially 

v  Briin,  O.  G.     Op.  cit,  p.  200. 

w  See :  Hill,  C.  M.    Vermont  Junior  High  Schools.    Vermont  State 

Board  of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  1,  1918. 
Hillegas,    M.B.     Junior    High    Schools     in    Small    Communities. 

Teachers  College  Record,  Sept.,  1918. 
Bennett,  G.  V.    The  Junior  High  School,  Baltimore.     Warwick  & 

York  Inc.,  1919. 
Briggs,   T.   H.     The    Junior   High    School,    Boston.      Houghton 

Mifflin,  1920. 
Koos,   L.   V.     The   Junior   High    School,    New   York.     Harcourt. 

Brace  &  Co.,  1920. 


135 

tbe  latter,  consist  of  a  graded  outline  of  exercises  in 
technique.  They  were  introduced  in  South  Africa 
primarily  because  of  dissatisfaction  with  the  purely 
bookish  curriculum  given  in  the  earlier  schools.  The 
origin  of  the  present  "  exercises  "  must  be  traced  to  the 
Sloyd  system  developed  in  Sweden.  The  Sloyd  method 
analysed  the  craft  into  its  fundamental  processes  and 
typical  constructions  and  then  presented  these  elements 
in  a~n  orderly  and  sequential  scheme  as  separate  exer- 
cises. It  was  not  designed  to  turn  out  carpenters,  but 
to  develop  the  mental,  moral  and  physical  powers  of 
children.  The  end  in  view  was  the  development  of  the 
child's  powers  and  faculties.  The  formative  aims  were: 

(1)  To  instil  a  taste  for,  and  a  love  of,  labour  in  general; 

(2)  to  inspire  respect  for  rough,  honest,  bodily  labour; 

(3)  to  develop  independence   and   self-reliance;    (4)    to 
train  in  habits  of  order,  exactness,  cleanliness,  and  neat- 
ness;  (5)  to  train  the  eye  in  the  sense  of  form,  to  give 
a  general  dexterity  of  hand,  and  to  develop  touch;   (6) 
to    accustom    to    attention,    industry,  ^perseverance   and 
patience;   and    (7)    to  promote  the  development  of  the 
physical  powers.    The  utilitarian  aims  were:  (1)  to  give 
dexterity  directly  in  the  use  of  tools  and  (2)  to  execute 
exact  work."* 

Sloyd  was  introduced  into  the  English  system,  where 
it  was  further  formalised  for  school  use,  the  exercises 
consisting  in  the  making  of  joints  without  any  reference 
to  their  use,  etc.  From  Great  Britain  it  was  introduced 
into  the  Cape  System  by  Dr.  Muir  in  1894,  where  it 
persists  more  or  less  in  its  original  form  to  this  day, 
although  educational  thought  has  changed  considerably 
in  the  meantime. 

The  outstanding  weaknesses  of  the  present  course  in 
manual  training  are  (1)  its  lack  of  relationship  to  life, 
( 2"i  its  lack  of  motivation  and  opportunity  for  originality, 
(3)  its  lack  of  thought  content,  and  (4)  its  over-emphasis 
on  the  product  and  skill. 


Salomon,  O.     The  Theory  of  Educational   Sloyd.     p.  0. 


What  has  contributed  most  to  the  elimination  of  the 
old  manual  training  course,  as  still  followed  in  South 
Africa,  has  been  the  overthrow  of  the  faculty  psychology 
and  the  conception  of  formal  discipline.  The  Sloyd 
system  was  drawn  up  under  an  explicit  belief  in  formal 
discipline.  As  stated  above  the  course  was  especially 
justified  educationally  because  of  its  mental  and  moral 
disciplinary  value.  But  recent  experiments  and  statis- 
tical inquiries  into  the  transfer  of  training  have  proved 
that  what  has  been  claimed  for  the  Sloyd  system  does 
not  hold.  Disciplinary  values  are  specific,  not  general. 
The  transfer  of  training  is  within  much  narrower 
limits  than  has  been  assumed.  Only  as  there  is  identity 
of  content  or  procedure  is  there  any  transfer.  From 
this  it  follows  that  the  content  value  of  a  subject  must 
be  the  primary  reason  for  pursuing  it  and  the  general 
disciplinary  value  the  secondary  reason.  Furthermore 
mere  motor  training  does  not  require  much  use  of  the 
frontal  lobes  of  the  brain,  the  lower  centres  of  the  brain 
and  the  spinal  card  are  the  only  parts  of  the  nervous 
system  very  much  employed  in  these  activities.  Skills 
may  be  acquired  and  made  automatic  without  affecting 
thinking  over-much.  Manual  exercises  should  be  used  as 
a  means  of  self -expression,  as  a  method  of  teaching 
rather  than  as  a  subject  of  instruction  or  a  way  of  ac- 
quiring technical  skill.  Technical  skill  is  a  distinct  aim 
in  vocational  training  which  should  have  no  place  in  the 
elementary  school. 

It  is  proposed  that  the  present  manual  training  courses 
be  eliminated  from  the  elementary  school  course  and  re- 
placed by  a  course  in  practical  and  industrial  arts  as 
outlined  by  Dean  Russell  and  Prof.  Bonser  of  Teachers 
Oollege,  Columbia  University/ 

11  It  is  only  by  means  of  such  studies that  we  acquire  the 

basis  of  judgment  concerning  the  acts  and  inspirations  of  our 


7  See :   Russell,   J.   E..  and  Bonser,  F.   G.     Industrial   Education. 
The  Speyer  School  Curriculum. 
Bonser,  F.  G.     The  Elementary  School  Curriculum. 


1.77  . 

fellow-men,  either  those  who  provide  the  capital  for  exploiting 
natural  resources  or  those  who  do  the  work  required  in  the 
several  industrial  pursuits.  In  our  political  life  no  knowledge 
is  of  more  consequence  than  that  which  is  concerned  with  the 
relations  of  capital  and  labour;  for  us  as  a  peoplef  there  is 
nothing  more  to  be  desired  than  a  sympathetic  understanding 
of  the  conditions  under  which  men  earn  their  living.  Is  a  liberal 
education  possible  in  this  age  without  a  knowledge  of  these 
things  which  more  than  all  others  make  men  free  or  leave  them 
slaves?"2 

Such  a  course  affords  a  better  preparation  for  the 
differentiated  courses  which  follow  in  the  secondary 
school  and  helps  the  pupil  define  the  aim  of  his  life  in 
terms  of  his  own  natural  endowment  and  possible  at- 
tainrnent.a 

"  The  practical  arts  studies  are  of  direct  value  in  the  measure 
in  which  they  aid  us : 

(a)  To  select   and   use  material    supplies   economically,    health- 
fully, and  in  good  taste. 

(b)  To   co-operate  efficiently   as   citizens   in   the  promotion  and 
control  of  production,  distribution,  and  use  of  supplies,  and 
in  securing  justice  and  fairness  to  producers  and  consumers. 

(c)  To  develop  permanent  interests  in  the  processes  and  methods 
of   production    and    usage    for    the    intellectual    satisfaction 
which  they  afford. 

(d)  To  develop  normal  growth  in  essential  forms  of  dexterity 
and  bodily  control  required  of  all  for  general  efficiency."6 

• 

This  course  will  be  the  same  for  all  pupils  in  the 
elementary  school  regardless  of  sex  or  future  vocation. 
It  can  be  made  to  take  the  place  of  woodwork,  needle- 
work, cookery  and  drawing.  The  teaching  of  practical 
and  industrial  arts  will  considerably  strengthen  the 
curriculum,  because  its  content  has  great  value,  and  it 
will  vitalise  the  teaching  of  language,  arithmetic,  history, 
geography,  nature  study,  and  hygiene.  The  last  men- 
tioned subject  which  has  been  taught  incidentally  hereto- 
fore will  be  especially  benefited.  Out  of  the  practical 


T  Russell,  J.  E.,  and  Bonser,  F.  G.     Op.  cit.  p.  6 

•Ibid,  p.  7. 

b  Bonser,  F.  G.     Op.  cit.  p.  207. 


188 

and  industrial  arts  work  emerge  many  questions  of 
measurement,  cost  values,  sources  of  materials,  trans- 
portation, discoveries,  inventions,  and  artistic  forms  of 
expression.  The  information  imparted  will  be  within 
the  practical  and  industrial  fields.  The  core  of  the  in- 
dustrial arts  course  will  be  the  facts  concerning  the  pro- 
cesses by  which  raw  materials  are  transformed  into 
articles  and  materials  of  greater  value  for  the  satisfac- 
tion of  human  needs.  The  work  is  taken  up  under  the 
following  heads,  (1)  foods,  (2)  clothing,  (3)  shelter, 
(4)  utensils,  (5)  tools  and  machines,  (6)  records.  The 
school  hoi  lunch  offers  a  splendid  approach  to  the  in- 
dustrial work  in  foods.  Much  successful  work  can  be 
done  even  in  the  one-teacher  school  by  means  of  home 
projects. 

The  general  industrial  arts  course  in  the  elementary 
school  will  become  domestic  science  for  the  girls  and 
manual  training  for  the  boys  in  the  secondary  school 
(Junior  High  School).  The  manual  training  is  best 
given  in  a  diversified  workshop  with  a  view  to  vocational 
guidance. 

In  the  Senior  High  School  those  taking  the  rural 
course  should  get  their  manual  training  work  as  part  of 
a  course  in  agriculture. 

Some  definite  agricultural  education  is  one  of  the  needs 
of  the  time.  It  is  felt  that  the  educational  course  given 
to  the  future  agriculturist  has  not  been  as  favourable  as 
that  given  to  the  pupil  entering  the  learned  professions. 
The  modern  agriculturist  cannot  be  successful  unless 
well  trained.  Some  recognition  has  been  given  to  this 
defect  in  our  courses  of  study  by  the  introduction  of  a 
course  in  agricultural  science.  This  is  conceded  as  a 
step  in  advance,  but  we  have  not  gone  far  enough.  This 
was  plain  to  the  Superintendent-General  of  Education 
when  he  wrote  in  the  Annual  Report  for  1918,  page  10: 
"  A  far  more  promising  field  for  educational  experiment 
would  be  th%e  establishment  of  agricultural  secondary 
schools  in  selected  areas. — It  is  hoped  that  circumstances 
will  permit  an  experimental  school  of  this  type  to  be 
established  in  the  near  future  at  some  suitable  centre.'* 


139 

This  proposal  has  induced  the  writer  to  treat  the  teach- 
ing of  agriculture  in  the  secondary  school  at  some  length. 

Two  questions  present  themselves  at  once.  Is  the 
agriculture  to  be  taught  with,  a  vocational  aim  as  a 
definite  preparation  for  farming  or  as  information  about 
agriculture,  and  for  general  cultural  purposes?  Is  it  best 
to  establish  special  and  independent  schools  for  the 
teaching  of  agriculture  or  should  it  be  included  in  the 
regular  work  of  the  secondary  schools? 

There  are  two  distinct  schools  of  thought  on  this  ques- 
tion, each  of  which  is  very  decided  in  its  opinion.  The 
first,  representing  the  older  and  the  European  school  of 
thought,  maintains  that  a  liberal  and  a  vocational  educa- 
tion should  not  be  given  in  the  same  school  and  at  the 
same  time.  In  England  "a  secondary  school  exists  to 
provide  a  liberal  training  and  it  is  no  part  of  its  task 
to  furnish  specific  or  technical  instruction  in  the  rudi- 
ments of  professional  studies  or  commercial  routine."6 
Dr.  Snedden,  as  a  representative  of  this  point  of  view, 
holds  that  "the  school  of  liberal,  and  the  school  of 
vocational,  education  should  have  no  concurrent  peda- 
gogical interdependence.  It  cannot  ordinarily  profit  a 
boy  or  a  man  to  try  to  get  in  his  working  time  vocational 
and  liberal  education  simultaneously."*1  Again:  "The 
vocational  school  of  farming  and  the  liberal  high  school 
should  not  be  pedagogically  interdependent  concurrently 
for  the  same  pupil,  as  said  above.  Of  course  these  two 
schools  can,  and  probably  should,  utilize  the  same  build- 
ing, possibly  at  times  the  same  means  of  transportation. 
But  they  should  not  have  the  same  courses,  the  same 
books,  the  same  library,  the  same  laboratory,  the  sarnie 
school  hours,  and  the  same  teachers,  or  the  same  prin- 
cipal."6 He  maintains  that  it  is  a  mistake  to  vocational- 
ise  liberal  education,  and  emphasises  the  fact  that 


c  Kandel.  I.  L.     Education  in  Great  Britain  and   Ireland.     U.S. 

Bureau  of  Ed.  Bulletin,  1919,  No.  9,  p.  50. 
d  Snedden,   D.      Schools   for    Farmers'    Sons.     Journal    of  Rural 

Education,  Feb..  1922,  p.  245. 
elbid.   p.  246. 


1-10 

vocational  agriculture  can  best  be  taught  on  the  school 
farm  in  connection  with  an  agricultural  school. 

He  proposes  that  a  classroom  and  a  small  office  be  set 
apart  in  the  local  high  school  for  the  teaching  of  agri- 
culture, the  teacher  to  be  a  young  man,  a  graduate  of  an 
agricultural  college,  and  the  boys  (say  20)  not  to  take 
any  studies  in  the  high  school.  Most  of  the  teaching 
will  be  out-of-doors/ 

The  other  point  of  view  has  been  expressed  at  some 
length  by  the  Commission  on  the  Reorganisation  of 
Secondary  Education  in  the  United  States.  The  main 
objectives  of  secondary  education  are  stated  by  this 
Commission  to  be : 

(1)  Health;  (2)  command  of  fundamental  processes; 
(3)  worthy  home-membership;  (4)  vocation;  (5)  citi- 
zenship; (0)  worthy  use  of  leisure,  and  (7)  ethical 
character.  u  This  Commission  holds  that  education  is 
essentially  a  unitary  and  continuous  process  and  that 
each  of  the  objectives  defined  above  must  be  recognised 
throughout  the  entire  extent  of  secondary  education.  This 
commission  enters  its  protest  against  any  and  all  plans, 
however  well  intended,  which  are  in  danger  of  divorcing 
vocation  and  social-civic  education.  It  stands  squarely 
for  the  infusion  of  vocation  with  the  spirit  of  genuine 
contact  with  the  world's  work.s 

In  the  judgment  of  the  commission  the  high  schools 
should,  as  a  rule,  be  of  the  comprehensive  (or  composite 
or  cosmopolitan)  type  embracing  all  curriculums  in  one 
unified  organisation,  because:  (1)  This  arrangement 
aids  in  a  wise  choice  of  curriculum,  assists  in  readjust- 
ments when  such  are  desirable,  and  provides  for  wider 
contacts  essential  to  true  success  in  every  vocation; 
(2)  life  in  such  a  school  is  a  natural  and  valuable 
preparation  for  life  in  a  democracy;  (3)  it  can  provide 
more  effectively  for  other  objectives  besides  vocation  than 


f  Snedden,   D.     New   Type  of   School   for  Farming.     School   and 

Society,  Sept.  6,  1919. 
e  Cardinal   Principles   of  Sec.   Ed.    U.S.   Bureau   of  Ed.   Bulletin, 

1918,  No.  35,  p.  16. 


141 

a  number  of  smaller  special-type  schools  can  do;  (4)  of 
accessibility;  (5)  of  adaptation  to  local  needs;  and 
(6)  an  effective  organisation  of  curriculums  is  possible. 

Instead  of  having  a  sudden  and  complete  separation  of 
liberal  and  vocational  education  there  are  two  alterna- 
tives. Some  insist  on  separate  vocational  schools,  but 
would  then  like  to  see  some  liberalising  elements  included 
so  that  the  future  worker  may  not  be  too  narrow.  Others 
want  the  pupil  to  continue  his  liberal  education  as  long 
as  possible  while  giving  him  some  vocational  training 
as  a  bait. 

As  regards  the  method  of  teaching  agriculture  in  the 
secondary  school  educators  are  pretty  well  agreed.  "The 
home  project  method  is  the  least  expensive,  most  practi- 
cal, most  adaptable  and  most  universally  effective  means 
of  assisting  boys  of  average  or  good  abilities  to  become 
farmers  capable  of  meeting  the  problems  of  the  new  farm- 
ing era." ]  A  home  project  should  meet  each  of  the 
following  requirements :  (1)  There  must  be  a  plan  of  work 
covering  a  season  or  an  extended  period  of  time;  (2)  it 
must  be  part  of  the  school's  instruction  in  agriculture; 
(3)  the  problem  chosen  must  be  more  or  less  new  to  the 
pupil;  (4)  the  parents  and  pupil  should  agree  with  the 
teacher  upon  the  plan;  (5)  some  competent  person  must 
supervise  the  home  work;  (6)  detailed  records  of  time, 
method,  cost  and  income  must  be  correctly  kept  on  suit- 
able forms;  and  (7)  a  written  report  based  on  the  record 
must  be  submitted  to  the  teacher.1  This  method  makes 
the  introduction  of  agriculture  into  the  secondary  school 
a  comparatively  easy  matter.  The  agricultural  projects 
tie  the  school  to  the  farms  of  the  community.  Not  only 
do  they  offer  the  best  possible  practice  for  the  pupils,  but 
the  work  assures  the  interest  of  the  farmers  on  whose 
farms  the  demonstrations  are  being  carried  on. 


11  Sjiedden,  D.     New  Type  of  School  for  Farming.     School  and 

Society.     Sept.  6,  1919,  p.  284. 
1  Agriculture  in  Secondary  School.  U.S.  Bureau  of  Ed.  Bulletin, 

1920,  No.  35,  p.  23. 


142 

The  agricultural  secondary  school  in  the  Cape  Province 
cannot  be  a  purely  vocational  school.  That  would  be 
doing  work  similar  to  that  undertaken  by  the  Elsenburg 
and  the  Grootfontein  Agricultural  Schools,  which  work 
falls  under  the  administration  of  the  Agricultural  Depart- 
ment of  the  Union.  Furthermore,  up  to  the  present,  the 
teaching  of  a  vocation  has  been  held  to  be  outside  the 
scope  of  the  secondary  school. 

In  view  of  what  has  been  said  above  it  is  proposed  (1) 
that  a  cultural  course  in  agriculture  be  taught  in  Stan- 
ards  IX  and  X,  (2)  that,  instead  of  establishing  special 
agricultural  secondary  schools,  agriculture  should  be 
taught  in  such  rural  high  schools,  situated  in  the  open 
country  or  in  villages,  as  come  up  to  a  certain  standard. 

It  all  depends  upon  the  spirit  of  the  instruction  how 
much  cultural  influence  the  teaching  of  agriculture  will 
have.  Deweysays: — 

"  On  the  basis  of  a  true,  or  social,  conception  of  culture, 
information,  use,  and  discipline  are  indispensable  ingredients  of 
culture,  or  else  they  have  no  legitimate  place  in  any  general 
educational  scheme.  'Culture  is  the  social  insight  and  spirit  to 
which  useful  skill,  knowledge  of  fact  and  trained  mental  power 
must  all  be  made  to  contribute.  Where  they  are  isolated  from 
active  participation  in  culture,  utility  becomes  mechanical 
routine,  or  else  skill  in  purely  egoistic  pursuits;  information 
becomes  an  accumulation  and  memorizing  of  a  mass  of  miscel- 
laneous facts  that  have  no  bearing  upon  conduct,  and  discipline 
becomes  a  formal  gymnastic  of  specialized  mental  habits  pi* 
*  faculties.'  "J 

The  course  in  agriculture  can  be  made  more  cultural 
than  the  present  course  in  manual  training  and  should  be 
as  practical  as  the  courses  in  cookery,  laundry  work, 
and  housewifery.  A  fault  of  the  teaching  of  agriculture 
in  the  past  has  been  that  it  was  too  theoretical,  too  much 
on  paper  or  too  much  in  the  form  of  lectures.  Mere 
textbook  courses  in  agriculture  have  proved  futile 
wherever  tried.  Mere  ability  to  answer  questions  out 
of  a  lextbook  is  in  itself  worthless. 

L . r-r- , , : . — : •— 

1  Dewej,  John,  on  "-culture  "  in  Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of  Educa- 
tion. 


143 

Agriculture  is  more  than  a  vocation;  it  is  also  a  mode 
of  living. 

"  Agricultural  curriculums  in  secondary  schools  should  be  rich 
in  social  and  civic  content  and  at  the  same  time  contribute 
specifically  to  the  vocational  efficiency  of  many  students.  The 
future  of  agriculture  is  dependent  not  only  upon  increased 
knowledge  of  production  but  also  upon  the  development  of  a 
more  satisfying  type  of  rural  life."k 

Through  the  study  of  agricultural  processes  and  prac- 
tices the  pupil  will  be  led  to  appreciate  the  worth  of 
agriculture  and  will  thus  be  more  likely  to  choose  an 
agricultural  vocation.  At  present  the  rural  school  has 
no  distinct  rural  appeal  or  emphasis.  This  defect  has 
been  ascribed  as  one  of  the  causes  for  the  migration  from 
the  country  to  the  towns  and  cities. 

As  standards  for  the  rural  high  school,  before  the  course 
in  agriculture  is  introduced,  it  is  suggested  that  (1)  there 
be  an  enrolment  of  pupils  from  farm  homes  equal  to  at 
least  i  of  the  total  high  school  enrolment,  (2)  there  be 
a  minimum  of  12  to  a  maximum  of  20  pupils  who  want  to 
take  the  course  in  agriculture.  These  pupils  to  include 
boys  over  16  who  have  left  school  but  wish  to  take  a 
course  in  agriculture  as  part-time  pupils.  A  maximum  is 
necessary  as  the  teacher  has  to  supervise  the  home  pro- 
jects. The  teacher  should  give  no  other  subjects  in  the 
high  school. 

For  the  city  and  other  high  schools  the  course  in  agri- 
cultural science  will  have  to  continue  much  as  at  present 
and  under  the  best  conditions  and  standards  the  school 
can  offer. 

0.     METHODS  OF  TEACHING  AND  TESTING. 

The  inspection  of  schools  and  the  examination  system 
of  the  Cape  Province  have  done  much  to  ensure  thorough 
work  and  have  sustained  standards  throughout  the 


k  Agriculture    in    the    Secondary    Schools.    U.S.    Bureau    of    Ed. 
Bulletin.  1920.  No.  35,  Preface. 


144 

country.  On  the  other  hand  there  have  been  marked  ill- 
effects  which  through  time  have  become  deeply  rooted 
in  the  school  system. 

The  methods  of  teaching  have  been  especially  affected 
and  for  the  worse.  The  best-paying  methods  are  those 
resulting  in  the  largest  number  of  passes  at  the  examin- 
ations. As  a  result  the  teachers  devote  all  their  energies 
to  drill  methods.  The  text  book  is  enthroned.  '  The 
teacher  who  is  able  to  give  the  best  concise  notes  for 
memorisation  is  the  most  successful.  The  teaching  in 
many  cases  consists  of  the  mechanical  hearing  of  lessons. 
What  is  not  examined  is  neglected.  The  teacher's  purpose 
is  to  get  the  pupils  to  know  a  certain  number  of  facts  in 
preparation  for  the  examinations,  the  pupils'  only  motive 
often  being  obedience,  good  graces,  or  avoidance  of 
penalty.  The  emphasis  is  placed  on  making  the  brain  a 
storehouse  rather  than  an  instrument  or  tool.  We  are 
concerned  with  turning  out  an  examination  product  in- 
stead of  a  well-developed  individual. 

There  is  a  neglect  of  associating  school  work  with  the 
child's  life  experience,  of  using  his  daily  activities  and 
his  interests,  of  making  practical  applications,  of  using 
group  work  to  develop  social  virtues,  of  using  life  situa 
tions  and  social  problems. 

The  following  table  by  Dr.  Bagley  shows  the  move- 
ments that  have  gradually  become  explicit  in  educational 
evolution  and  points  out  most  concisely  the  steps  that 
have  to  be  taken  in  South  Africa. 

1.  Memoriter  mastery rational  mastery  (under- 
standing)        problem   solving    (thinking). 

2.  Compulsion  by  teacher  co-operation  between 

teacher  and  pupil  and  co-operation  among  pupils. 

3.  Verbatim    recitation    question    and    answer 

recitation topical  recitation socialised 

recitation. 

4.  Subjects  of  study  isolated  and  independent   

subjects  correlated   subjects  unified. 

5.  Deferred    values    of    knowledge     immediate 

values. 


145 

6.  Teacher's    initiative    pupils'    initiative     (or 

purpose). 

7.  Fear  as  a  motive rivalry  and  competition  as 

motives co-operation  as  motive. 

8.  Artificial   setting   of   school   and   classroom    

laboratory  setting  (still  somewhat  artificial)    

natural  setting  of  home,  shop,  field,  or  garden.1 

As  pointed  out  above  the  real  ends  of  education  are 
being  sacrificed  to  the  examination  goal.  The  parents 
seem  to  be  primarily  concerned  with  having  their  children 
pass  at  the  inspection  or  examinations,  while  the  schools 
advertise  their  examination  successes. 

Examinations  rightly  handled  constitute  a  valuable 
means  of  teaching  as  well  as  a  testing  device  that  no 
teacher  can  safely  neglect.  But  a  school  system  built  up 
on  state  examinations  interferes  with  local  initiative, 
stifles  the  more  spiritual  kind  of  teaching,  substitutes 
instead  a  mechanical  cramming,  and  interferes  with  the 
individualisation  of  teaching,  i.e.  makes  no  provision  for 
each  pupil's  peculiar  needs.  The  examinations  lay  an 
undue  stress  on  paper-work  to  the  neglect  of  other 
methods  of  testing.  Then  our  system  of  cumulative 
examination  (while  making  for  thoroughness)  means  that 
instead  of  taking  up  a  subject  unit  and  disposing  of  it 
in  one  year  the  subject  must  be  dragged  out  through 
all  the  years  of  high  school,  e.g.  arithmetic,  which  may 
be  finished  in  a  few  months  has  to  be  taken  to  the  end 
of  the  high  school.  From  this  follows  a  large  number 
of  very  short  lesson  periods  and  a  limited  number  of 
subjects. 

The  many  school  examinations  (language,  Departmen- 
tal and  University)  should  be  reduced  to  the  lowest 
possible  minimum,  by  gradually  accrediting  such  schools 
as  come  up  to  a  required  standard  as  is  done  in  the 
United  States. 


y,   W.   0.     Mimeographed   material. 


140 
7.     BUILDING,  GROUNDS  AND  EQUIPMENT. 

Regulations  regarding  School  Buildings.  Pamphlet 
}sro.  3.  Department  of  Public  Education,  Colony  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  1907,  needs  to  be  revised  and 
Drought  up  to  date.  The  items  which  want  special 
attention  are  playground  equipment,  water  supply, 
libraries,  window  shades,  school  ball  or  auditorium  and 
domestic  science  room.  The  one-teacher  rural  school 
might  well  have  separate  and  special  attention. 

It  is  suggested  that  the  new  one-teacher  school  build- 
Ings  be  provided  with  small  rooms  adjoining  the  class- 
rooms. One  of  these  small  rooms  may  be  used  as  a 
library  for  silent  reading  and  study,  another  for  manual 
work  and  a  third  for  domestic  science,  where  the  school 
hot  lunch  may  also  be  prepared. 

Every  school  should  have  an  ample  sanitary  water 
supply.  There  should  be  the  necessary  sanitary  closets. 
Correct  lighting  and  ventilation  should  be  provided.  Bet- 
ter hygienic  and  sanitary  conditions  are  urgently  needed, 
and  they  call  for  immediate  action.  The  single  or  double 
desks  should  be  movable  and  not  screwed  to  the  floor. 
The  icteal  is  a  single,  adjustable  and  movable  desk. 

In  two-room  buildings  the  rooms  should  be  arranged 
to  be  thrown  together,  forming  an  assembly  room  for 
community  gatherings.  In  the  larger  schools  an  assem- 
bly room  is  of  especial  importance  for  creating  a  school 
spirit  and  a  neighbourhood  enthusiasm  for  general  pro- 
gress. For  the  use  of  the  school  as  a  community  centre 
see  page  157. 

"  A  teachers'  home  for  a  consolidated  school  o.C  the  open 
country  is  a  self-evident  necessity  and  a  good  investment  for 
the  district;  but  for  a  one-room  school,  which  gives  no  assurance 
of  being  able  to  employ  a  married  teacher  with  a  family,  it 
must  ordinarily  prove  a  failure.""1 


1  Arp.,    J.    B.      Rural    Education    and    the   Consolidated    School, 
p.  153. 


147 

A  teachers7  home  is  indispensable  to  real  consolidation 
and  highly  desirable  in  many  rural  communities  for  the 
following  reasons: — 

(1)  The  school  home  gives  the  teachers  a  more  definite 
social  status  in  the  community. 

(2)  The  school  will  be  able  to  attract  better  teachers. 

(3)  It  solves  the  boarding  problem. 

(4)  The  cottage  for  the  teacher  can  be  made  a  model  for 
the  neighbourhood.     "  A  beautiful,  well-planned,  and 
sanitary  cottage  on  the  school  farm  would  help  in 
a  definite  way  to   stimulate  the   farmers  to   build 
better  homes   (not  more  expensive  ones)   and  to  re- 
construct to  a  degree  those  already  built." n 

(5)  Tt  can   be  used   as  a  demonstration   and   domestic 
experiment  station. 

(0)   The  school  home  helps  to  eliminate  gossip  and  small 
talk  about  teachers. 

(7)  It  makes  for  permanency. 

(8)  It  helps  to  make  the  teachers  happy  in  their  work. 

(9)  It  may  be  made  a  social  centre. 

As  was  shown  in  part  III  the  percentage  of  schools 
liaving  school  gardens  was  only  15.7.  This  poor  result 
may  be  due  to  the  poor  water  supply,  the  pressure  of 
the  other  schoolwork  on  the  teacher,  the  lack  of  recogni- 
tion of  gardening  in  the  syllabus,  the  frequent  changes 
of  teachers,  the  limitations  of  the  teacher  in  knowledge 
and  experience,  the  need  of  a  graded  course  in  garden- 
ing, the  lack  of  fences  for  school  grounds,  etc.  It  is 
hoped  that  a  course  in  practical  arts  will  tend  to  correct 
this. 

The  present  physical  exercises  are  not  enough.  They 
are  of  the  drill  type  and  lack  much  of  the  spontaneity 
and  most  of  the  social  value  of  play.  There  is  needed 
a,  play-ground  in  connection  with  every  school  where  the 
teacher  can  take  the  pupils  and  instruct  them  in  playing 
games.  Some  play-ground  equipment  will  give  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  enjoyment  to  the  pupils  and  at  the 
same  time  add  to  their  physical  well-being. 

"Dresslar,  F.  B.     Rural  Schoolhouses  and  Grounds,  p.  124. 


148 

The  present  unsatisfactory  state  of  our  school  libraries 
calls  for  an  aggressive  campaign  for  their  betterment. 
At  least  every  high  school  should  be  provided  with  a 
separate  library  room.  The  school  library  should  be 
more  than  a  shelf  of  books  for  recreational  "reading.  It 
must  be  a  source  of  information  occupying  a  definite 
place  in  the  school  work.  It  should  contain  important 
reference  aids,  and  should  train  boys  and  girls  to  be 
self-helpful  in  using  these  to  answer  their  own  questions. 


8.     THE  ONE-TEACHER  SCHOOL. 

The  limitations  and  disadvantages  of  the  one- 
teacher  school  are  many.  Some  of  them  will 
be  listed  here  with  the  remedies  proposed  in  each  case. 
Since  we  cannot  hope  to  eliminate  the  small  rural  school 
for  many  years  to  come  we  must  in  the  meantime  increase 
its  efficiency  to  the  greatest  possible  extent.  Chief  among 
these  are  the  follqwing:— 

(1)  The  many   classes   and   the  great  number   of   class 
periods,  with  a  short  time  only  for  each.       To  be 
effective  a  lesson  must  have  reasonable  length  . 

To  correct  this  situation  combine  two  or  more 
Standards  into  a  single  class  in  all  subjects  where 
combination  is  possible.  Subject  outlines  for  each 
class  may  be  alternated  by  years  so  that  during  even 
years  the  subject  matter  taught  in  each  group  is 
different  from  that  taught  in  odd  years.  (Of.  Courses 
in  Illinois  and  Montana). 

(2)  A    young,    inexperienced   teacher   lacking   adequate 
preparation. 

It  requires  greater  ability  to  handle  several  differ- 
ent classes  at  the  same  time  than  it  does  to  manage 
one  as  in  a  graded  school.  This  should  be  recog- 
nised and  rural  teachers  must  be  especially  prepared 
at  the  normal  schools  for  the  work  they  will  have  to 
do. 

(3)  The  short  tenure  of  the  teachers,  often  less  than  a 
year. 


149 

The  more  experienced  teachers  will  continue  to 
drift  into  the  graded  schools  as  long  as  they  pay 
better  salaries,  and  offer  easier  work  and  greater 
social  attractiveness.  As  for  the  others  there  are  so 
many  factors  entering  into  the  various  situations 
that  a  single  general  remedy  is  impossible. 

(4)  Poor  buildings  and  poor  equipment. 

There  is  need  of  a  special  publication  containing 
desirable  standards  for  a  one-teacher  rural  school 
and  a  minimum  list  of  equipment  The  necessity  for 
economy  on  the  part  of  the  Department  is  recog- 
nised, but  the  people  might  well  know  what  is  best 
so  that  they  will  want  to  bring  about  some  improve- 
ment at  their  own  expense. 

(5)  Too   few   pupils   to    form    a    strong    social    group, 
Children  lack  all  the  incentive,  competition,  encour 
ageinent,  and  enthusiasm  of  large  classes. 

The  best  remedy  for  this  is  the  consolidated  school. 

(6)  The  teacher  has   the    additional    and    unnecessary 
handicap  of  having  to  use  curricula  made  for  the 
graded  school  organisation. 

The  one-teacher  schools  should  be  provided  with 
curricula  organised  by  groups  to  fit  their  practical 
necessities.  In  the  Transvaal  a  simpler  curriculum 
has  been  drawn  up  for  country  primary  schools  and 
the  work  is  organised  for  groups  instead  of  for 
standards.0 

(7)  Text-book  education.       Too  much  drill  and  memory 
work.       No  rural  adaptations.  » 

This  is  accounted  for  by  the  inspection  system  and 
the  present  organisation.  The  assistance  of  rural 
school  supervisors  and  the  grouping  of  classes  ought 
to  bring  about  a  great  improvement. 

(8)  The  so-called   "special    subjects7'    are  not    taught. 
Inferior  teaching  results  and  a  dissipation  of  effort. 

The  most  satisfactory  results  can  be  attained  only 
in  a  graded  school.  Where  a  one-teacher  school 


0  Regulations    and    Courses   of   Instruction    for   Country    Schools. 
Transvaal    Education   Department.   Pretoria.  1918. 


150 

has  special  rooms  the  pupils  can  do  much  on  their 

own  responsibility  during  the  long  periods  between 

their  lessons. 
(0)   No  supervision  of  a  principal.    No  help  from  other 

teachers.     School  inspection  without  supervision. 
These   teachers  having  a  special  need   require   a 

special  remedy  in  the  form  of  rural  supervisors. 
(10)   Poor  living  accommodation  for  the  teachers. 

The  ideal  is  a  home  for  the  teacher,  but  at  present 
tlii«  is  not  practicable. 

Altogether  the  most  satisfactory  solution  to  the  many 
rural  school  problems  is  the  consolidation  of  schools.  But 
it  is  well  to  point  out  here  that  there  are  certain  poten- 
tialities in  the  one-teacher  rural  school,  which  teachers 
might  use  if  they  but  saw  their  opportunity.  The  en- 
vironment is  simple,  the  pupils  have  first-hand  contact 
with  nature,  the  younger  pupils  may  learn  from  the  older, 
the  stronger  may  help  the  weaker,  the  long  free  periods 
between  lessons  may  be  profitably  used  by  the  pupils  and 
the  teacher  can  come  to  know  and  understand  the  parents 
and  pupils  more  intimately  and  take  individual  ability 
more  generally  into  consideration.  The  greater  flexibility 
of  organisation  should  make  it  possible  to  provide  better 
for  individual  differences. 

9.     CONSOLIDATION  AND  TRANSPORTATION. 

The  advantages  of  consolidation  are  many.  By  this 
means  there  ought  to  be  assured  :— 

(1)  Better  school  buildings  with  better   equipment. 

(2)  A  graded  school  in  which  each  child  will  receive 
more  and  better  attention. 

(3)  Larger  classes  which  stimulate  rivalry,  new  interest 

and  enthusiasm. 

(4)  Better  teachers  who  can  be  retained  longer. 

(5)  An  increased  enrolment  of  older  boys  and  girls  who 
will   stay   in   school   when   secondary   education   is 
provided. 

((>)  A  course  of  study  enlarged  and  enriched  by 
special  subjects  and  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the 
locality. 


151 

(7)  Enough  pupils  for  organised  plays  and  games. 

(8)  Supervision  of  the  teacher's  work  by  the  principal 
and  the  inspector. 

(9)  More  regular  attendance  and  greater  punctuality. 

(10)  A  better  social  life  for  the  rural  child. 

(11)  More  nearly  equal  educational  opportunities  for  the 
children  on  the  farms  with  those  in  the  towns. 

(12)  Better  sanitary  conditions. 

(13)  Less  cost  to  the  parents  in  that  they  can  have  their 
children  at  home  and  need  not  move  to  town  or  pay 
their  board  at  a  town  school. 

(14)  A  centre  for  many  community  activities. 

A  model  consolidated  school  should  have  not  less  than 
5  acres  of  land  to  be  utilised  for  experimental  plots  and 
playgrounds,  a  home  for  the  principal  and  other  teachers 
and  a  one-story  school  building  with  a  large  assembly 
room,  which  may  be  used  for  community  functions.  Such 
a  consolidated  school  may  develop  into  a  standard  rural 
high  school.  It  should  be  located  either  in  a  village 
or  in  the  open  country. 

The  difficulties  in  connection  with  the  establishment 
of  a  good  consolidated  school  are:— 

(1)  the  increased  cost  of  the  better  school,  and 

(2)  the  transportation  of  pupils  to  school. 

Without  doubt  the  question  of  transportation  is  the 
most  difficult  one  connected  with  the  consolidation  of 
schools.  Experience  in  America  seems  to  have  demon- 
strated pretty  clearly  that  the  public  system  of  transpor- 
tation is  best.  Individual  transportation  does  not  prove 
satisfactory.  Too  many  emergencies  and  excuses  inter- 
fere with  bringing  the  children  to  school.  It  has  proved 
to  be  far  more  satisfactory  for  the  district  to  own  and 
furnish  comfortable  vans,  employ  the  driver s,  prescribe 
schedules,  and  enforce  systematic  performance  of  the 
service.  The  individual  system  of  transportation  should 
be  looked  upon  as  a  temporary  makeshift  to  be  used 
only  in  sparsely  populated  districts. 

The  essentials  to  be  provided  if  the  transportation  is 
to  be  satisfactorv  are: — 


152 

(l.\  A  route  not  too  long  to  be  covered  in  a  reasonable 
time.  This  means  usually  with  good  roads  and 
horse  vehicles  not  over  G  miles.  If.  auto-busses  are 
used  the  distance  may  be  twice  as  great  or  longer. 

(2)  A  definite  time  schedule  for  each  wagon. 

(3)  A  comfortable  and  safe  vehicle. 

(4)  A  satisfactory  driver  who  will  have  to  enter  into  a 
contract  with  the  board. 

The  Department's  policy  of  gradually  building "  up 
strong  rural  community  schools  by  means  of  centralisa- 
tion is  sound,  but  in  addition  the  organisation  of  some 
real  consolidated  schools  should  be  undertaken  as  the 
result  of  a  careful  survey.  There  are  great  possibilities 
when  auto-busses  are  used. 

10.     RURAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 

Another  great  problem  is  to  provide  the  rural  children 
with  easily  accessible  rural  high  schools.  In  the  Cape 
Province  there  has  been  no  study  made  of  the  per  cent, 
of  rural  children  who  complete  the  high  school.  In  the 
United  States  it  has  been  found  that  over  700  per  cent, 
more  of  city  pupils  complete  the  high  school  than  do 
farm  pupils." p  Conditions  in  South  Africa  will  be  found 
to  be  about  the  same.  One  thing  is  certain,  the  rural 
child  is  decidedly  handicapped  in  obtaining  secondary 
education.  This  has  been  recognised  by  the  granting  of 
Government  secondary  school  scholarships  in  aid  of  de- 
serving and  necessitous  rural  pupils. 

Several  objections  have  been  raised  against  the  town 
high  schools  for  rural  children.  They  are:— 

(1)  The  great  expense  to  the   parents  in  transporting 
their  children  and  boarding  them  in  town. 

(2)  The    children    must    be    entrusted    to    the    care    of 
strangers  for  2  or  4  years  during  the  most  critical 
period  of  their  life  or  the  family  must  forsake  the 
farm   and  move  to  town   with   the  children   during 


U.S.  Bureau  of  Ed.  Bulletin,  1919,  No.  4.     A  Manual  of  Educa- 
tional Legislation,  p.  33. 


153 

this  time.      Either  course  destroys  the  ties  that  bind 
such  children  to  the  farm  and  country  life. 

(3)  The  town  high  school  tends  to  draw  the  farming 
class  from  agricultural  activities  into  other  callings. 
The  social  life  tends  away  from  the  farm. 

Even  in  a  young  country  like  Queensland,  Aus- 
tralia, there  is  a  steady  flow  of  the  country  people  to 
the  cities,  and  the  Secretary  for  Public  Instruction 
ascribes  it  to  the  fact  that  "  the  greater  part  of  the 
higher  education  given  in  this  country  serves  to  train 
up  young  people  who  will  prefer  town  life  and  a 
town  career,  who  cannot  live  without  city  amuse- 
ments, and  who  regard  country  life  as  far  beneath 
them." q 

(4)  It  is  difficult  or  impossible  for  the  rural  pupils  to 
carry  out  home  project  work  in  agriculture.     Even 
the  addition  of  an  agricultural  department  to  a  cit$ 
high  school  cannot  and  will  not  convert  it  into  a 
rural  high  school. 

If  the  rural  high  school  is  to  offer  its  best  for  the 
rural  people  then  the  agricultural  curriculum  must 
be  the  strongest  of  its  offerings.  This  does  not  mean 
thai  the  rural  child  is  not  to  be  given  an  equal  chance 
with  other  children  to  enter  the  professional  courses. 
Only  that  the  rural  school  will  specialise  in  an  agri- 
cultural curriculum  whereas  the  urban  school  will 
specialise  in  an.  industrial  and  commercial  curri- 
culum. Just  as  much  as  it  is  better  for  a  rural 
child  to  go  to  a  city  school  for  his  commercial  anc* 
industrial  training  so  it  is  better  for*  an  urban  child 
to  come  out  to  a  rural  school  for  his  agricultural 
training. 


r  Report   of  the   Sec.   for   Public   Instruction   for   the   year  1920. 
p.  60. 


154 


11.     CONTINUATION   SCHOOLS,  PART-TIME  EDUCATION  AND 
EXTENSION  TEACHING. 

The  importance  of  seeing  to  the  continued  intellectual 
and  social  growth  of  those  remaining  in  rural  activities 
cannot  be  over  emphasised..  While  the  city  dweller  is 
every  day  able  to  profit  by  his  varied  experiences  and 
from  the  many  educational  agencies,  the  rural  dweller 
is  handicapped  by  his  environment  and  lack  of  social 
contacts.  Many  rural  residents  are  in  danger  of  losing 
the  little  book  knowledge  they  have  and  becoming  near 
illiterates.  Every  possible  agency  should  'be  used  to 
improve  the  rural  mind. 

The  cities  are  clamouring  for  continuation  schools  and 
part-time  education  and  are  getting  them  while  the 
country  is  falling  further  arid  further  behind  in  the 
march  of  educational  progress.  It  is  about  time  that 
something  were  done  specially  for  the  country.  The  De- 
partment of  Education  and  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture might  well  get  together  in  connection  with  the 
"  after-education  "  of  the  rural  youth  as  well  as  for  that 
of  adults. 

The  continued  education  of  the  rural  youths  and 
adults  cannot  be  left  to  private  initiative.  If  such  work 
were  made  part  of  the  regular  school  system  no  duplica- 
tion of  buildings,  teaching  force  and  equipment  would  be 
necessary.  Extension  work  is  less  likely  to  succeed  out- 
side the  public  'school  system  than  within  it.  The  one- 
teacher  school  is  obviously  unable  to  carry  out  a 
programme  of  extension  teaching.  We  must  look  to  the 
larger  schools  with  special  teachers  to  carry  on  this  work. 
The  consolidated  school  and  the  rural  high  school  are 
the  proper  places  for  it. 

It  is  proposed  that  the  different  departments  in  these 
schools  (especially  agriculture  and  domestic  science) 
be  opened  to  the  country  youth  over  16  as  part-time 
pupils. 


155 

"The  committee  (American,  oil  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in 
the  secondary  schools)  believes  that  it  is  proper  for  a  public 
high  school  that  is  doing  good  work  in  agriculture  to  extend 
itself  to  the  people,  but  that  it  should  not  begin  the  process 
until  it  has  something  to  extend.  Not  every  high-school  in- 
structor in  agriculture  is  qualified  to  do  extension  work.  The 
instructor  should  first  show  in  the  teaching  of  his  pupils  that 
he  is  competent  to  extend  his  instruction  to  the  patrons  of  the 
school.  Extension  efforts  should  be  the  result  of  work  rather 
than  the  beginning  of  work.  The  extension  work  should  grow 
gradually  as  the  school  work  in  agriculture  grows  and  be  the 
natural  expression  among  the  people  of  the  work  that  arises 
in  the  school  itself....Indirect  extension  would  be  the  result  of 
and  grow  out  of  home  project  work  with  pupils."1" 

It  is  proposed  that  one-week  short  courses  be  held 
for  the  country  youth  and  for  farmers  and  their  wives 
at  various  rural  centres  where  there  is  a  demand  for 
such  a  course  and  a  sufficient  enrolment  is  assured.  The 
agricultural  teacher  and  the  home  economics  teacher 
should  be  assisted  by  experts  from  the  agricultural 
schools  and  such  other  instructors  as  may  be  necessary. 

The  agricultural  schools  are  doing  good  work,  but  they 
are  handicapped  by  a  lack  of  staff  and  equipment.  They 
are  at  present  able  to  reach  only  a  small  per  cent,  of 
the  farming  people.  When  once  their  work  comes  to  be 
correlated  with  that  of  agricultural  departments  in  the 
high  schools  great  progress  may  be  expected. 


12.     THE  RURAL  COMMUNITY. 

The  school  occupies  a  very  important  place  in  the 
rural  community,  much  more  so  in  the  country  than  in 
the  towns  where  there  are  in  addition  many  other  educa- 
tional agencies. 

The  schools  are  maintained  primarily  for  the  training 
of  children.  Their  obligation  to  improve  the  conditions 
and  enrich  the  lives  of  all  the  people  in  the  community 
is  a  secondary  function  only. 


rU.S.  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin,  1920,  No.  35,  p.  26. 


.     156 

Much  of  the  success  of  a  school  depends  upon  the 
interest  and  co-operation  of  the  parents.  In  the  United 
States  parent-teacher  associations  have  been  organised 
for  the  purpose  of  studying  local  educational  problems 
and  of  bringing  the  homes  and  schools  into  a  more  sym- 
pathetic understanding  of  their  joint  obligations  in  the 
education  of  children. 

In  Germany  parents  were  not  allowed  to  visit  the 
schools  except- by  special  permission  from  the  authorities 
and  this  was  rarely  granted.  Since  1918  Parents'  Asso- 
ciations (El tern  Rate)  are  an  important  part  of  the 
school  administration.  In  England  and  South  Africa 
the  parents  seldom  or  never  visit  the  schools,  and  often 
only  when  they  have  something  to  complain  about.  In 
the  United  States  not  only  do  parents  regularly  visit 
the  schools,  but  it  is  customary  to  take  visitors  through 
the  schools. 

Visiting  the  homes  of  the  pupils  is  an  important  part 
of  the  teacher's  duty,  not  only  in  enlisting  the  interest 
and  co-operation  of  the  parents,  but  also  in  learning 
all  he  can  about  the  pupils'  heredity,  environment,  and 
natural  interests.  It  is  also  important  for  the  parents 
to  visit  the  school  and  see  it  in  operation.  This  may 
be  accomplished  by  having  the  parents  visit  the  school 
at  their  own  convenience  or  by  having  visiting  days 
when  they  come  in  a  body.  It  is  best  perhaps  to  have 
parents'  days  on  which  all  the  patrons  visit  the  school 
to  see  some  school  exhibits  or  an  entertainment,  as  such 
gatherings  have  great  social  values.  The  teacher's  visits 
to  the  homes,  and  the  parent's  visits  to  the  school, 
should  be  for  the  sole  purpose  of  closer  co-operation, 
and  never  for  the  purpose  of  criticising. 

A  wider  use  of  the  school  plant  by  the  community  is 
recommended.8 

At  present  "little  if  anything  is  done  in  the  way  of  the  use 
of  schools  as  community  centres,  although  considerable  use  is 
made  of  school  buildings  in  the  country  for  meetings."* 

'  *  See :   Perry,   C.  A.     Wider  Use  of  the  School   Plant.     Russell 

Sage  Foundation,  1910. 
*  Letter  from  Department,  4th  August,  1921. 


15? 

"  The  schoolhouse  is  found  to  be  the  logical  place  for  com- 
munity meetings  in  most  rural  communities  for  the  following 
reasons;  (1)  In  many  rural  communities  no  other  meeting  place 
is  available;  (2)  the  schoolhouse  is  public  property,  which  is 
idle  more  than  half  the  time,  and  its  use  for  this  purpose  is, 
therefore,  an  extra  dividend  upon  the  people's  investment; 
(3)  the  public  schoolhouse  is  everywhere  free  from  sectarian 
and  political  feelings  of  any  sort;  and  (4)  the  average  rural 
community  cannot  afford  to  provide  a  hall  or  lease  a  room 
for  such  purpose,  even  if  this  were  necessary."" 

The  school  playground  may  be  used  for  community 
recreation  and  the  schoolhouse  for  lectures,  club  meet- 
ings, entertainments,  and  various  other  forms  of  educa- 
tional, business,  and  social  gatherings.  The  adequate 
establishment  of  libraries  in  the  country  districts  is  an 
urgent  need.  A  reading  community  is  invariably  a  pro- 
pressive  community.  The  schools  are  the  natural 
places  where  the  books  may  find  accommodation. 

"  We  should  preserve  a  continuity  of  interest  among  adults 
in  any  local  educational  venture  by  as  many  different  methods 
of  appeal  as  possible;  whether  by  debate,  ^ecture,  drama,  sport. 
There  should  always  be  something  in  any  higher  education 
centre  that  attracts  the  adult  and  makes  him  realise  that 
Education  is  a  thing  of  no  finality,  that  there  is  always  some- 
thing for  him  too  to  learn  and  to  enjoy."  v 

The  necessity  of  properly  organising  all  the  forces  in 
a  community  has  become  evident. 

"  For  the  improvement  of  rural  life,  measures  are  needed 
beyond  the  necessary  improvement  of  labour  conditions.  A 
communal  organisation  that  will  promote  vigorous  intellectual 
and  social  life  in  the  country  districts  is  essential.  To  this 
end  the  committee  (on  adult  education)  recommends  the  pro- 
vision of  a  hall  under  public  control  with  a  village  institute 
providing  for  many-sided  activities  as  the  ideal  to  he  aimed 
at"  w 


u  Hanifan,    L.    J.     The   Community   Centre,   New   York.     Silver, 

Burdett  &  Co.,  1920,  p.  50. 
vAshbee   C.    R.     The   Hamptonshire   Experiment   in   Education. 

p.  58. 
w  Kandel  I.  L.  Education  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,       U.S. 

Bureau  of  Ed.  Bui.  1919,  No.  9.     p.  69. 


158 

In  the  United  States  many  rural  communities  are  so 
organised,  and  some  of  them  have  a  community  house. 
A  community  programme  of  work  is  planned  by  the  people 
to  meet  their  particular  needs  and  interests,  with  definite 
goals  to  mark  achievement. 

First  a  community  survey  is  undertaken  to  find  out 
the  actual  facts  and  to  serve  as  a  basis  for  interpreting 
actual  needs.  This  prevents  guessing.  Then  projects 
are  chosen  and  leaders  selected  on  the  basis  of  interest* 
knowledge,  available  time  and  ability  to  develop  a  cer- 
tain line  of  work.  As  many  people  as  possible  are  given 
an  opportunity  to  share  in  community  service. 

Such  a  community  organisation  gives  purpose  to  the 
energies  of  the  community,  secures  the  best  available 
advice  at  all  points,  puts  the  progress  of  the  community 
on  a  practical  business-like  basis,  counteracts  isolation, 
creates  many  forms  of  local  co-operation,  and  is  a  strong 
educational  force. 

Organisation  has  become  a  present-day  test  of  social 
and  vocational  efficiency.  Because  of  the  many  handi- 
caps under  which^they  find  themselves,  organisation, 
leading  to  effective  co-operation  in  economic  and  social 
relations,  must  become  the  watchword  of  the  South 
African  farmers. 


159 


SUMMARY  OF  RECOMMENDATIONS. 
A,     Recommendations  based  on  the  Findings: 

1.  That    professional    supervisors    be    appointed    to 
help  the  teachers  of  the  one-teacher  rural  schools. 

(See  pp.  79,  93-95,  126-129). 

2.  That  the    lack  of    high  school    education  of    the 
rural  teachers  be  corrected  by  gradually  raising 
the    requirements    to    two    years    of   professional 
work    beyond    graduation    from    a    high    school. 
(See  pp.  57,  59,  9899,  130). 

3.  That  the  rural  school  teachers  receive  specialised 
preparation.     That  they  be  given  at  least  special 
courses   in    rural   school   management   and   rural 
sociology,   and   adequate  rural  practice  teaching. 
(See  pp.  103,  130). 

4.  That  rural  school  instructors  be  employed  on  the 
staff  of  such  normal  schools  as  are  in  a  position 
to  give  rural  school  practice.     (See  pp.  103,  130). 

5.  That  there  be  a  demonstration  country  school  in 
connection  with  every  normal  school  which  pre- 
pares teachers  for  rural  work.     ( See  pp.  103.  131 ) . 

6.  That  the  lack  of  provision  for  the  improvement 
of  teachers  in  service  be  met  along  some  of  the 
lines  mentioned  on  page  103.        (See  pp.  45,  64, 
103). 

7.  That  a  special  course  of  study  be  drawn  up  for 
rural   elementary   schools   suited   to   their   needs* 
and  provided    with    a  plan    of    work    to  fit    the 
practical    necessities    of    the    one-teacher    rural 
schools.      (See  pp.  85,  86,  132-134). 

8.  That  in   the  revision   of  Pamphlet  No.   3   of  the 
Department    of    Public    Education    special    atten- 
tion  be    given    to  the    one-teacher    rural   school. 
(See  pp.  71-78.  146). 


0.  That  the  unhygienic  and  unsanitary  conditions  in 
many  rural  schools  call  for  immediate  action 
^(See  pp.  72,  73,  77,  146). 

Id  That  the  organisation  of  some  real  consolidated 
schools  be  undertaken  as  a  result  of  a  careful 
survey.  (See  pp.  86,  120,  150-152). 

11.  That   the   school   plant  be   more  widely   used  by 
the  community.      (See  pp.  82,  156). 

12.  That  a  rural  community  organisation  be  formed 
so  that  the  people  may  act  together  in  projects 
of  common  interest.       "(See  pp.  84,  157). 

B,     Recommendations  made  in  general: 

1.  That   the   inspectors   be   men    of   experience   and 
professionally   well   trained,    that   they   be   given 
regular  leaves  of  absence  for  professional  study 
and  investigation,  and  that  their  salaries  be  that 
of  principals  of  high  schools.    (See  pp.  32,  94,  125). 

2.  That  expert  supervision  gradually  replace  inspec- 
tion.      (See  p.  126). 

3.  That  the  rural  school  supervisors  be  also  members 
of  a  training  college  staff.    (See  pp.  128,  132). 

4.  That    the    present    manual    training    courses    be 
eliminated  from  the  elementary  school  course  and 
replaced  bv  a  course  in  practical  and  industrial 
arts.       (See  pp.  70,  134-138). 

5.  That  a  cultural  course  in  agriculture  be  taught 
in  Standards  IX    and  X    of  such  high  schools  as 
have   an   enrolment   of  pupils   from   farm   homes 
equal  to  at  least  a  quarter  of  the  total  high  school 
enrolment,  and  a  minimum  of  12  to  a  maximum 
of  20  pupils  who  want  to  take  the  course.     (See 
pp.  70,  108-112,  138-143). 

6.  That  a  definite  co-operation  between  the  Agricul- 
tural Department  and  the  Education  Department 
is   necessary   if   agricultural    education    is   to   be 
most  profitably  developed.     (See  pp.  20,  89,  155). 

7.  That  the  future  courses  of  study  be  not  merely  a 
bare  outline  of  subject  matter  but  contain  method 
helps,  type  lessons,  references,  etc.     (See  p.  132), 


itii 

8.  That  the  many  school  examinations  conducted  by 
external  examiners  be  reduced  to  the  lowest  pos- 
sible minimum.     (See  pp.  126,  145). 

9.  That  a  public  system  of  transportation  be  insti- 
tuted for  pupils  in  connection  with  consolidated 
schools.      (See  pp.  9,  54,  121,  151). 

10.  That  the  different  departments  in  secondary  and 
high  schools  be  opened  to  the  country  youth  over 
16  years   of   age   as   part-time   pupils.      (See   pp. 
124,'  154). 

11.  That    one-week    short    courses    be   lield    for    the 
country  youth  and  for  farmers  and  their  wives 
at  various  rural  centres  where  there  is  a  demand 
for  such  courses  and  a  sufficient  enrolment  is  as- 
sured.    (See  pp.  124,  155). 


1(52 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
South  Africa. 


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Kaapstad. 
Education  Gazette.     Education  Department,  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Government  Printers,  Cape  Town. 
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Town. 
Eybers    E.         Educational    Development    at    the   Cape    of    Good 

Hope   1652-1839.        Doctor's    dissertation.        New   York 

University,  1918. 
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16S 


VITA. 

The  author  of  this  dissertation,  Johannes  Kossouw 
Malan,  was  born  at  Wellington,  Cape  Province,  Union 
of  South  Africa,  on  May  18th,  1887.  He  received  his 
elementary  education  in  the  Blauw  Vallei  public  school 
and  his  secondary  education  in  the  Boys?  High  School. 
Wellington.  He  was  a  student  at  Huguenot  College, 
Wellington,  and  at  the  South  African  College,  Cape 
Town,  receiving  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  from 
the  University  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1909.  He 
was  a  student  at  the  Training  College,  Wellington,  in 
1910,  where  he  qualified  for  the  Second  Class  Teachers' 
Certificate.  In  1916  he  attended  the  Training  College, 
Stellenbosch,  as  a  result  of  which  he  obtained  the  Union 
First  Class  Teachers'  Certificate.  In  1919  he  was 
awarded  a  Union  of  South  Africa  Overseas  Scholarship 
for  further  study  in  Education. 

Since  coming  to  the  United  States  he  has  been  a 
student  at  (1)  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 
during  the  academic  year  1919-1920,  receiving  the  degree 
of  Master  of  Arts  at  the  end  thereof;  (2)  the  University 
of  Chicago  for  the  Summer  Quarter,  1920;  (3)  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University  for  the  academic  year 
1920-1921 ;  (4)  Cornell  University,  Summer  School, 
1921;  and  (5)  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 
during  the  vear  1921-1922. 


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